Domestic Revolutions

Domestic Revolutions

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc380166779” Chapter 4: The shaping of the Afro-American Family PAGEREF _Toc380166779 h 1

HYPERLINK l “_Toc380166780” Chapter 5: Industrialization and the Working-Class family PAGEREF _Toc380166780 h 2

HYPERLINK l “_Toc380166781” Chapter 6: The Rise of the Compassionate Family 1900-1930 PAGEREF _Toc380166781 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc380166782” Chapter 7: America’s Families Face the Great Depression PAGEREF _Toc380166782 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc380166783” Chapter 8: Families on the Home Front PAGEREF _Toc380166783 h 5

HYPERLINK l “_Toc380166784” Chapter 9: The Golden Age: Families of the 1950s. PAGEREF _Toc380166784 h 5

HYPERLINK l “_Toc380166785” Chapter 10: Coming Apart: Radical Departures Since 1960 PAGEREF _Toc380166785 h 6

Chapter 4: The shaping of the Afro-American FamilyThe roots of Afro-Americans can be traced way back to the coming of slaves in the United States. Their numbers had continued increasing from around 750,000 in 1790 to close to four million in 1860. However, the foundation of the Afro-American family was built in mid and late 18th century, around which time the slaves blended African and American cultural practices and beliefs into unique Afro-American system of kinship and family, a system that had its own rules pertaining to marriage, courtship and sexual behavior. Their system did not resemble their African roots or even those of the Southern white families (68). While their familial ties had been broken by slavery, the slave families established extended kinship networks aimed at assisting one another (69). Theirs was the traditional nuclear family with a slave father and slave mother, mostly owned by different masters (70). The families underwent varied phases with men initiating courtship with the permission of their masters, before having weddings presided by white or black preachers. The next phase was child bearing and rearing with most children getting into the labor force. Slaves did not live to old age, thanks to the horrible living conditions and abuse from their masters (73). Some slaves decided to get married again after being freed following the civil war (76). Most adopted sharecropping, where they tilled lands with the produce being shared between them, their former masters who provided land, and providers of faming supply (77). Even after being freed, they maintained two-parent families, although a significant percentage also had single-parent families (78). However, their kinship ties continue even today enhancing mutual support and assistance (79).

Chapter 5: Industrialization and the Working-Class familyA large percentage of U.S population worked in the industries, farms and coalmines prior to World War II (84). These jobs were unstable and could be lost after economic downturns, poor weather, technological displacement or variations in consumer demand (85). The earnings were barely enough for subsistence as evidenced by their poor living conditions (85). Despite the dislocations and disruptions from industrialization and urbanization, the adverse conditions usually strengthened the familial bonds and promoted the re-adoption of the earlier systems of interdependence and mutual assistance (86). In late 1830s, the Northeast saw the appearance of a new form of manual laborers mostly composed of immigrants who were running away from the economically distressed Europe and attracted to the U.S by the promise of land, and jobs. These immigrants replaced the natives in the nation’s factories (86). The migration did not destroy kinship relations or render the immigrants rootless, rather it strengthened the kinship and familial ties (87). These ties came in handy in times of distress as the people supported each other (88). In most cases, people had to sacrifice their personal wants for familial needs (88). While women contributed to the family income through piecework, their primary duties remained caring for the home and family. Child labor was also common as families had to supplement their income (90). Either way, most families had abysmal living conditions thanks to the prevalent unemployment and wage cuts that characterized the late 19th century. These families guarded against financial insecurity by buying houses (92). Immigrants were obviously different depending on their origin. While their marginal economic situation brought insecurity an conflict, it also enhanced family loyalty and cohesiveness (94). In the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, parents were allowed to work alongside their kids or even select them as apprentices (94). This allowed kids to stay with their parents for longer periods (95). However, the role of extended kinship in industries was constrained after the introduction of scientific management in early 20th century (96).

Chapter 6: The Rise of the Compassionate Family 1900-1930The 19th century saw a modification in the expectations and functions to which the middle-class American family had been assigned (107). The family was now not only as source of economic security or stable environment for the growth of kids, rather it was also expected to cater for the psychological and emotional needs of the members (108). The last quarter of the 19th century had seen an increase in divorce rates, which led to a drop in the birth rate (108). More stringent measures were taken to reduce the rate of divorce, with fewer grounds being permissible for divorce but this did not lower the divorce rate (109). This was mainly predicated by the increased economic empowerment of women where they became immersed in careers and education. The natives feared that the aliens would eventually dominate the country as the latter’s birth rate was high with lower divorce rates (110). Women also changed their mode of dressing and brand of sexuality, gaining more boldness in their sexual acts. Their participation in paid labor increased while morals took a nosedive especially concerning sex before and outside marriage (112). In response to this phenomenon, some people came up with the “companionate family” where parents and their kids would be pals while husbands and wives were to be “lovers and friends” (113). This was a shift from the conservative and patriarchal family that was incompatible with modern ideals. The companionate family emphasized on sexual gratification (115), which was impended by the women’s deficiency of instruction in sex (116). Fathers had a significantly reduced role even in the family front, thanks to women empowerment. Children became more undisciplined while their relationship with parents became more intimate (). Concerns on the deterioration of the children discipline resulted in the first efforts to offer day nurseries for kids of working mothers (129). Medical and financial assistance was also provided to poor families as it was acknowledged that mothers usually neglected kids out of financial needs (129). Laws were made to cater against inadequate childcare, while improved obstetrical and prenatal care was enhanced to protect the unborn.

Chapter 7: America’s Families Face the Great DepressionThe Great Depression brought uncertainty, as well as loss of sustenance and support in American families. The income of families had contracted by more than 46% in the period between 1929 and 1930 (134). The depression created poverty and exposed preexisting poverty (134). The increased poverty and unemployment forced the federal government to participate actively in the alleviation of the resultant suffering. However, the depression increased closeness in families as they turned to each other for comfort leading to reduced divorce rates (136). It is however, noted that the family may have been negatively affected as reduced income reduced men’s self esteem thereby undermining family respect. It is also seen as having delayed marriages, forced families to share living quarters, postpone childbearing, as well as tolerate unhappy marriages (137). Families also had to start pooling their resources, adopt labor-intensive techniques and have more than one wage earner. They also relied on kinship ties for support, rather than the immediate families (138). The role of fathers was decreased by their decreased earnings and the increased income and saving by women (139). Lower-class black family life were dissolved thanks to precarious economic status and high mortality rates among black men (142). Unfortunately, the public response to this was insufficient despite the fact that black Americans had a relatively higher unemployment rates than their white counterparts (142). In an effort to alleviate the situation, the government made varied policies mainly targeting families. In addition, it encouraged family planning and the use of contraceptives, something whose opposition had eased (147).

Chapter 8: Families on the Home FrontThe Second World War saw an increase in GNP, which increased the marriage rate and birth rate (152). Just like the depression, World War II drew families together and enhanced kinship bonds as they had a shared sense of privation and danger. There was also increased migration, which strained public services, as well as housing (156). Increased employment and income, however, was cut by the food shortage that ate into the income. In addition, women started taking up roles that were traditionally preserved for men breeding fears of marital strife (161). However, there was little facilitation of the entry of women into the labor force by the government. Child abandonment was common as parents worked in the graveyards and in warzones. Labor laws were weakened so as to allow the participation of children in the labor force (166). The war also saw American adolescents create a unique teenage subculture that showed their disdain for social conventions (167). The losses for servicemen families were not only financial but also psychological and emotional. After the war, there was increased divorce, which was explained as having resulted from wartime separation strains, wedding rush and disillusionment, and housing shortage (173).

Chapter 9: The Golden Age: Families of the 1950s.After the war, many women returned to childrearing and home management (178). Public concerns were substituted with private life satisfaction. There was increase in marriage and birth rates with many people marrying at a younger age that before and during the war. Marriage was seen as the epitome of a person’s life and the route to happiness (180) with women abandoning career and education to achieve the emotional fulfillment that came with being a wife and mother (181). The 1960s also saw an increase in economic power of families evidenced by the suburban boom as living as separate households had become affordable thanks to increase in housing. Suburbanization reinforced the postwar society’s family orientation, where women concentrated on childrearing while men worked. Critics note that the society was women dominated thanks to fathers’ absence in their children’s lives. The 1950s middle-class, suburban family pursued the companionate family life ideal that used to be the precinct of well-to-do, upper-middleclass families in 1920s. This partnership, however, did not underline equality as the woman had her primary role as serving her husband (187). Families concentrated more on children with parents showering them with love, gifts, toys, less discipline and separate rooms. Family life, however, was unstable thanks to strains on traditional sex roles. Women had tasted the freedom of men roles during the world war, had gained education but were required to maintain their femininity (195). They were dissatisfied as they had no recognition for their work at home, while men had to deal with feelings of being misplaced in the home front. A distinctive youth culture emerged with children craving more love from their parents and challenging alienation from adult roles. This forced the parents to break down barriers between themselves and their children.

Chapter 10: Coming Apart: Radical Departures Since 1960 The family has undergone tremendous transformation in the recent times. The changes include lower birth rates, higher rates of single parenthood and divorce, and lower ages of partaking sex (204). These changes are thought to cause increased rates of delinquency, school dropout, suicide, teenage pregnancy and drug and alcohol abuse. This has been caused by changes in values and norms with people choosing personal happiness rather than sacrifice for family (206). There was increased need for self realization in the 50s and 60s with philosophers seeing family commitment as an impediment to individual fulfillment. Casual sex became the norm with increase in premarital sex and adultery. Black families, however, while depicted as disorganized were mainly composed of two spouses (212). They also maintained strong kinship ties thanks to their deprived status. It is believed that increased government welfare expenditure caused family-breakdown and illegitimacy (215). However, it is evident today that families headed by women have a higher likelihood of be poor. Nevertheless, the changes experienced in the 60s and 70s weighed heavily on children as they eroded the traditional ideal of childhood as a protected and special period of innocence (218). Television has become one of the parenting tools, exposing children to a world to which their parents were not exposed. The United States assumes a lower role in the welfare of children than European countries (225). Increased divorce rate is known to have stunted the children’s emotional and psychological growth and resulted in maladjustment that prevailed for years (226). However, there are instances where such children have higher independence, maturity and resilience. It is noteworthy that family laws have also changed with divorce being granted to offer couples with a way of evading acrimonious and long legal battles on who should be blamed and division of property.

Works cited

Mintz, Steven. Domestic Revolutions: A Social History Of American Family Life. New York: Simon and Schuster, Apr 3, 1989. Print