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Literature

FUNDAMENTALS OF LITERATURE

• Post author By Evans
• Post date June 7, 2024

Etymologically, the term Literature comes from the Latin word “Litteraturae,” which means writings. In general, Literature is applied to all fields, including Philosophical and historical writings. However, in literature, it is used to designate fictional and imaginative writings such as poetry, fiction, and drama.

 Therefore, Literature is a work of art expressed in words using a Language creatively to express human realities.

IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE

1. Language is very important in literature as words are used creatively as raw materials for structuring literary works.
2. Language must always be used as a communication channel to convey the desired ideas or messages.
3. Language sets literature apart from other artistic mediums and from everyday works.

The History of Literature

Ancient Literature: The origins of literature can be traced back to ancient civilizations. The Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest known works, dates back to ancient Mesopotamia. Similarly, ancient Egyptian, Indian, Chinese, and Greek literature laid the foundations for many literary traditions. These early works often explored themes of heroism, morality, and the divine, using poetry and prose to convey stories and philosophical ideas.

Medieval Literature: During the medieval period, literature was dominated by religious themes and texts. Works such as “Beowulf” and “The Divine Comedy” reflect the values and beliefs of their time. The use of vernacular languages became more common, broadening the audience for literary works beyond the educated elite who understood Latin.

Renaissance Literature: The Renaissance was a period of rebirth for literature, marked by a renewed interest in classical antiquity. Figures like William Shakespeare, Dante Alighieri, and Geoffrey Chaucer created works that explored human nature, society, and the complexities of life. This period also saw the rise of the printing press, which made literature more accessible to the masses.

Modern Literature: Modern literature, emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, often broke away from traditional forms and subjects. Authors like James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Franz Kafka experimented with narrative techniques and themes, exploring the inner workings of the mind and the complexities of modern life. This period also saw the rise of various literary movements, each contributing to the richness of modern literary landscapes.

TYPES OF LITERATURE

Originally, there were two types of Literature, namely;

1. Oral Literature
2. Written Literature

ORAL LITERATURE CLASSIFICATION

This is literature presented through oral expressions. It was mostly used before the invention of writing.

TYPES OF ORAL LITERATURE

1. The Folk Tale: This short story has been told verbally from one generation to the next, with humans serving as the primary characters in the tale.
2. The legend: it is a narrative passed down from generation to generation, particularly one that may or may not be genuine, but it does have a historical origin or foundation.
3. Myths: These are tales that have their roots in ancient times, particularly those that deal with concepts or beliefs concerning the genesis of objects, events, or races.
4. Fables are a type of ethical narrative that is typically told in the form of a short story and frequently includes animals as the main protagonists.
5. Anecdote: The majority of the time, this is a reference to the reported event that occurred in the life of a significant individual and ought to assert that there is some truth to it.
6. Epics: These are lengthy narrative poems written in an elevated form. They depict characters of high positions in adventures by focusing on their relationship to a core heroic person and the development of episodes.
7. Ballads: These are a type of verse that can be sung or recited, and they are distinguished by the theatrical presentation of the verse in the form of a straightforward tale.
8. Riddles: These are enigmatic inquiries, assertions, or depictions, particularly designed to assess the ingenuity of those seeking to unravel them. For example, it walks on four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and three legs in the evening- a human being.
9. Proverbs: These are concise and widely recognized expressions that convey a universal truth or offer guidance. Or are compact fixed statements that imply question and answer?
10. Idioms: These are phrases or statements that have a meaning that cannot be understood by looking at the individual words. Instead, they must be learned as a whole.

WRITTEN LITERATURE CLASSIFICATION: PROMINENT GENRES OF LITERATURE

A: PROSE/ NOVEL

A novel is a lengthy work of fiction that presents characters and actions as reflections of actual life inside a plot of varying degrees of intricacy.

FEATURES OF A NOVEL

• It is featured by fictive narrations. Novels are characterized by their use of imaginative and fictive narratives. These stories are often created from the author’s imagination, allowing for a wide range of possibilities and creative expression.
• It uses characters who are doers of actions or who the story evolves around them. The characters in a novel are central to the storyline, serving as the main actors driving the plot forward. These characters are usually well-developed, with distinct personalities, backgrounds, and motivations that evolve throughout the story.
• It is written at a considerably longer length than other literature. Unlike shorter forms of literature, novels are typically lengthy, allowing for complex plots and detailed exploration of themes. This extended length allows authors to build intricate worlds and multi-faceted characters.
• It is written in a narrative form. Novels are primarily narrative, focusing on storytelling and the unfolding of events over time. This form allows for a structured sequence of events, providing readers with a coherent and engaging reading experience.

SHORT STORIES

Collection of brief fictional narratives.

A short story is a concise prose tale that is shorter than a short novel, typically spanning twenty to thirty pages. It has a limited number of characters and typically focuses on a single important event or topic.

B: POETRY

Poetry is a form of artistic expression that elicits emotions and stimulates the imagination by skillfully using vivid and strong language. It is typically structured with a pattern of words or lines that feature a consistent and recurring emphasis or stress.

Other descriptions of poetry

• A work that exhibits distinctive utilization of language and rhythm, incorporating elements such as rhymes, imagery, metaphor, symbol, onomatopoeia, meter, and varied repetitions.
• Writing is the act of expressing a focused and vivid understanding of experiences, which are carefully selected and organized in a specific structure to evoke a particular emotional reaction through their meaning, sound, and rhythm.
• It is a literary genre that utilizes language in a distinctive manner by including numerous figurative expressions.
• This genre is characterized by its adherence to a specific structure and meter, and it makes extensive use of figurative language while being notably concise compared to other genres.
• It serves as a means of conveying emotions, ideas, and personal experiences through language rich in imagery and rhythmic sounds.

CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF POETRY

• It uses repetitive sounds, especially similar sounds like anadiplosis and parallelism.
• It arouses emotions
• It is reflective/reflects experiences
• It is rich in figures of speech or figurative Language
• It is rhythmical or metrical in form
• It implies the use of lines/verses in the stanza
• Poetry is imaginative.
• Implies poetic license, i.e., allows grammatical errors
• It uses concentrated/condensed Language, or it is very economical in  the amount of words

HOW POETRY DIFFERS FROM OTHER GENRES

1. Poetry is composed of lines that are grouped into stanzas, creating a distinct structure. In contrast, novels and other prose genres are written in paragraphs, presenting a continuous block of text.
2. Poetry employs a more concentrated and succinct use of language, often packing significant meaning into fewer words. This economy of expression contrasts with the more expansive and descriptive language used in novels and plays.
3. In poetry, the speaker is referred to as the persona, a voice that may not be directly identifiable. Prose works, such as novels, feature characters with specific names and identities that interact within the narrative.
4. Poetry is inherently rhythmical, with lines often following patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables. This rhythmic quality, marked by regular beats and pauses, distinguishes it from prose’s more straightforward narrative flow.
5. Poetry is typically richer in the use of figurative language, employing metaphors, similes, and symbolism to convey deeper meanings. This dense use of literary devices is more pronounced than in novels and plays, which may use them more sparingly.
6. Poetry often uses language that evokes strong emotions, engaging the reader’s senses more intensely than other genres. This elevated and sensory language aims to create a more immediate and profound emotional response.
7. Poetic forms frequently incorporate repetitive sounds, such as rhyme and refrain, adding a musical quality to the verses. This use of sound patterns is a defining feature that sets poetry apart from prose narratives.
8. Poems are uniquely suited to be sung or recited aloud, emphasizing their auditory appeal. While novels and plays are primarily read or performed as dialogues, poetry’s composition lends itself to oral presentation.
9. Poetry often invites deeper reflection, encouraging readers to ponder the underlying themes and emotions. This introspective quality is more pronounced in poetry than in the more plot-driven narratives of novels and plays.
10. Poets frequently employ poetic license, allowing them to bend conventional rules of grammar and syntax for artistic effect. This flexibility contrasts with the stricter adherence to language rules typically found in prose genres.

TERMS USED IN POETRY/POETIC TERMS

• Poet(ess): A poet or poetess is someone who crafts poems, weaving words into structured or free-form verses to express emotions, tell stories, or convey deep meanings. Their work often reflects personal insights, societal observations, or imaginative worlds.

• Persona: The persona is the voice or speaker within a poem, presenting the thoughts, feelings, or narrative to the reader. This voice is not necessarily the poet’s own but rather a crafted perspective that guides the poem’s message.

• Poetic License: Poetic license allows poets to intentionally deviate from standard grammatical rules or conventions to achieve a particular effect. This creative freedom enables them to enhance the poem’s rhythm, rhyme, or meaning.

• Verse: A verse is a single line of poetry, serving as the building block of a poem’s structure. Each verse contributes to the overall rhythm, tone, and meaning of the poem.

• Stanza: A stanza is a grouping of verses that together form a cohesive unit within a poem, often separated by a blank line. Stanzas function similarly to paragraphs in prose, organizing ideas and contributing to the poem’s structure.

• Rhyme: Rhyme involves the repetition of similar sounds, typically at the end of verses, creating a musical quality in the poem. This technique can enhance the poem’s aesthetic appeal and memorability.

• Rhythm: Rhythm in poetry is the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables, creating a musical beat and flow. This patterned cadence can evoke different emotions and enhance the reading experience.

• Refrain: A refrain is the repeated line or group of lines that recur at the end of stanzas, adding emphasis and cohesion to the poem. This repetition can reinforce the central theme or create a rhythmic anchor.

• Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words within the same verse. This stylistic device can add a musical quality and enhance the poem’s imagery.

• Consonance: Consonance is the repetition of similar consonant sounds, often at the end of verses or within words, contributing to the poem’s rhythm and musicality. It can create a sense of harmony or tension depending on the context.

• Assonance: Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds within a verse, adding to the poem’s auditory appeal. This technique can create internal rhyming and enhance the mood and flow of the poem.

• Reiteration: Reiteration is the repetition of the same word or phrase within a poem to emphasize a particular idea or theme. This technique can create a sense of urgency, rhythm, or focus.

• Parallelism: Parallelism involves repeating similar or identical language, structures, events, or ideas in different parts of a text, creating a sense of symmetry and balance. This technique can reinforce themes and enhance the poem’s overall coherence.

• Tone: The tone of a poem refers to the quality of sound or attitude expressed by the persona, shaping how the poem is perceived. It can range from joyful and celebratory to sombre and reflective.

• Mood: Mood is the emotional atmosphere created by the poem, influencing the reader’s emotional response. It can evoke feelings such as sympathy, anger, regret, or sadness and is shaped by the poem’s language, setting, and imagery.

• Attitude: Attitude reflects the poet’s or persona’s perspective or stance toward the subject of the poem. It is conveyed through the choice of words, tone, and overall approach to the theme.

FORMS OF POETRY

There are two types of poetry as the broader category according to perspectives/views; these are;

1. Traditional poetry
2. Modern poetry

TRADITIONAL POETRY

These are poems that adhere to specific laws or concepts, such as having an equal number of verses in each stanza and following a consistent rhyming pattern. Poetry written in a closed form is characterized by the presence of stringent rules or principles that regulate its structure and composition.

MODERN POETRY

Free verse is a type of poetry that disregards established norms and concepts, allowing for an open and unrestricted form of writing. Nevertheless, poetry can be classified into various categories based on its form (structure) and substance. In this category, we have three primary classifications of poetry, which are:

• Narrative poetry
• Lyric or lyrical poetry
• Dramatic poetry

       I. NARRATIVE POEMS

These are kinds of poems that tell a story that is presented in the form of narrating a story. We have many poems (classifications) that belong to this category, such as descriptive, didactic, epic, ballad, etc.

DESCRIPTIVE POEMS:

These are specific categories of narrative poetry and are presented by describing/giving features/characteristics of something/things.

DIDACTIC POEMS:

Are those poems that give instructions and are composed for educative purposes/issues? For example, “Front Line” by George Shea

EPIC POEMS:

These are gland heroic poems that try to narrate about phenomena or events of heroes/heroic figures in a given society. Or it is a form of poem that recounts/tells accomplishment of a heroic figure. It includes expansive setting, superhuman feats, gods and supernatural being.

BALLAD:

It is a poem where it involves more than oneself/personal in conversation or speaking in turn.

These are some of narrative poetry, as there are others that are reflective, expressive, etc.

    II.  LYRICAL POEMS:

These are poems that express the strong feelings/emotions of the speaker or persona. There are three classifications of lyrical poems, which are ode, elegy and sonnet.

ODE: A poem that expresses serious issues/addresses a person or celebration of events.

ELEGY: This is a poem that expresses sorrowful or sad strong feelings, especially on the death of a close person. Or is a type of poem in which a poet mourns the death of a specific person. For example, “The Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.” by Nikki Glovanni.

SONNET: A poem that expresses feelings using fourteen verses/ is a fourteen-line poem normally with distinctive rhyme skills and a metrical pattern.  “If We Must Die,” “Merry-go-round,” and “The Strange Wind” are good examples of sonnet poems.

 III. DRAMATIC POETRY:

It is a kind of poetry that involves a dramatic narrative form and uses more than oneself/persona. There are two specifications of dramatic poetry;

MONOLOGUE: Refer to poems that are under this category that involve one speaker who is in charge of more than him/herself. E.g. “Song of Lawino”

DIALOGUE: Refer to poems which are involving more than one speaker or persona.

DRAMA/PLAY: A performance including actors, whether in a theater, on television, or on the radio, is commonly known as a scripted production. To effectively entertain and educate others, the portrayal of human nature should properly and convincingly capture the range of emotions, qualities, and changes in circumstances that individuals go through.

Dramatic representation entails the meticulous reproduction of complete actions intended to grab human attention. This is achieved through a sequence of interconnected events that are enacted and communicated through speech and symbolic portrayals of real-life situations and circumstances. A performance that exclusively utilizes gestures rather than verbal communication is known as a pantomime.

ELEMENTS OF DRAMA/PLAY

1. Setting: Setting pertains to the specific geographical region where the literary work unfolds, whereas time denotes the chronological period during which the story is situated. Usually, the environment is either based on reality or created in the imagination. The context can be either clearly defined (such as New York City in 1930) or subject to varying interpretations (such as a large urban area during a time of economic difficulty). It also directly relates to a portrayal of such.
2. Characterization/dramatic personage: it is the process of carefully choosing and shaping characters, actors, and actresses in order to communicate the intended message effectively. In an alternative approach, the author uses this strategy to convey to the reader diverse facets of a character’s personality, life background, principles, physical attributes, and more. Furthermore, it directly relates to a specific portrayal of that.
3. Plot: it is the intentional organization and sequence of events or occurrences in a story or play. A superstructure pertains to the whole framework of a literary composition, specifically a novel or a drama/play. The plot of a story refers to the deliberate arrangement and sequence of events carefully crafted by the author to achieve a particular aesthetic or artistic effect. The arrangement might be either chronological or achronological, depending on the author’s preference.
4. Audience: these people receive the desired message through listening, reading, observing, or watching a drama/play.
5. Diction: this is the choice and use of words in a literary work.
6. Style/technique refers to the way a literary work is structured/presented by the author/playwright.
7. Theme: it refers to the central concept or underlying message that is communicated through a written work. A theme is typically presented as a comprehensive sentence, while a notion conveyed as a single word or fragmentary phrase is referred to as a motif.
8. Motif: An idea or image that appears again and holds significant importance. A motif is distinct from a theme in that it can be conveyed as a single word or incomplete phrase, whereas a topic typically needs to be presented as a complete sentence.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DRAMA AND PLAY

Key Aspects	Drama	Play
Setting	Uses a physical setting	Shaped by words
Actions	Uses actual actions as acted	Uses words to shape actions
Audience	Has more audience as it involves both illiterate and literate people	Typically has fewer audiences, mostly literate individuals
Origin	Started before play	Developed later as a literary form
Story Comprehension	Easier to grasp the story	The story might be less immediately clear without the visual and auditory elements of drama.
Language	Presented in spoken language	Always in written language
Characters	Uses real characters (actors)	Uses imaginary characters shaped by words

TYPES OF PLAY/DRAMA

There are about four types of drama/play, but the two types are the major ones of the four.

TRAGEDY:

Tragedy is a kind of drama characterized by the gravity of deeds and circumstances, which ultimately result in the hero’s life being at risk, leading to their death or solitude. For example, the plays “An Enemy of the People” and “Death of a Salesman.”

COMEDY:

It is a form of drama that employs comedic actions to elicit laughter from the audience. Typically, it is distinguished by cases of mistaken identity and concludes with a positive outcome.

Tragicomedy:

The story blends elements of both seriousness and humor, yet the protagonist always manages to survive perilous circumstances.

MELO DRAMA:

This entails the incorporation of highly exaggerated actions and musical noises as key components of the performance intended to provide entertainment.

ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE

1.      FORM

2.      CONTENTS

FORM;

It consists of the following:

a.       Setting

b.      Style

c.       Plot

d.      Diction

e.       Linguistic techniques

f.       Characterization

STYLE

Style, in its conventional interpretation, refers to a systematic approach or technique employed in the execution of a task, particularly within the realms of art or science. In the context of a literary piece, technique or style pertains to the manner in which the work has been organized and presented. Various styles are employed in the presentation of literary works, a few of which are outlined below:

Flashback/analepsis: a scene inserted into the narrative that shifts the plot back in time from its current place. Furthermore, flashbacks can be characterised as a non-linear regression to a previous point in time, when an event that occurred earlier in the chronology is recounted later in the text. Generally, a flashback is referred to as the insertion of an earlier event into the chronological structure of a novel, motion picture, play and film.

Oral traditional style/straightforward: this is characterised by a basic narrative structure, where a story is presented in a linear fashion, starting from the beginning, progressing through the middle, and concluding at the end. It is a frequently employed and antiquated literary technique, distinct from others.

Overshadowing/prolepsis is a literary method that entails providing a glimpse into the composition of a piece of art and subsequently offering more elaborate information as the work unfolds.

PLOT

This pertains to the arrangement (organization) of events within a narrative or play. It is evident in conflicts that are either physical, moral, or personal. a plot is the actions; a story is the occurrences. The plot is a sequence of events and interplays within a narrative that is meticulously arranged to achieve the author’s intended aesthetic or artistic effect. It is constructed using the following:

1. Exposition: The exposition is the part of the story where the setting and characters are introduced. It provides the background information needed to understand the plot.
2. Imposing Problem/Conflict: This is the moment when the writer begins to introduce a problem or conflict between characters or ideas. It sets the stage for the unfolding drama and challenges the characters will face.
3. Rising Action: The rising action includes events and actions that build up from the initial conflict, leading to more complications. This part of the story develops the plot and heightens tension.
4. Climax: The climax is the most exciting part of the story, where the main conflict reaches its highest point. It is the turning point where the outcome becomes clear, often involving a dramatic event.
5. Falling Action: During the falling action, the story begins to wind down, and the tension decreases. The consequences of the climax unfold, leading towards the resolution.
6. Resolution/Denouement: The resolution is where the problems in the story are resolved, and the story concludes. It ties up loose ends and provides closure to the narrative.

CHARACTERIZATION

This is the artistic technique used by writers to create and develop characters in a story. Through careful description, dialogue, and action, the author makes these imaginary persons feel real and believable to the reader. Effective characterization helps readers connect with the characters, understanding their motivations, emotions, and personalities as if they were real people.

How do we determine characters?

Behaviour, trait or features

1. His/her words, what he/she speaks/says
2. His/her actions/deeds, what he/she does
3. His/her name
4. What is said by other characters to another
5. His/her own monologue
6. What he/she thinks in an armchair
7. Physical movement
8. Psychological setup/background, which is the mental pictures of that character
9. Moral aspects

TYPES OF CHARACTERS

1. Protagonist characters: These characters serve as representatives of the majority and advocate for the interests of society.
2. Antagonist characters: These characters are known for their antagonistic nature, since they prioritise their own self-interests and often oppose the protagonist characters.
3. Main characters: These characters are present throughout the work, regardless of whether they are protagonists or antagonists. They serve to communicate the intended message to society by their competing viewpoints.
4. Minor characters: helping characters who help the main characters carry a message.
5. Round characters are dynamic characters that undergo a transformation in their personality throughout the work of art. They undergo a process of progression from one stage to another. Alternatively, they are referred to as characters in the process of development.
6. Flat characters are static in nature and do not undergo any changes during the entire work of art. Nevertheless, they may occasionally be referred to as static characters.
7. Stock characters are borrowed characters from another field, such as from oral tradition.

THE ROLE OF LITERATURE IN THE SOCIETY

Literature has the following roles in the society:

1. To educate individuals by instilling in them a sense of consciousness and self-motivation. It enhances individuals’ cognitive abilities by providing them with an understanding of current social conditions, thereby stimulating their capacity for logical thinking.
2. To provide entertainment through the use of aesthetic delight that elicits a sense of enjoyment. Literary works such as books, plays, and films/movies are consumed by reading, listening, and viewing.
3. In order to develop language, individuals must engage in activities that utilise language as the primary mode of communication. This includes developing skills in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. It enhances one’s lexicon and linguistic structure.
4. The purpose is to emancipate individuals physically and intellectually by guiding them to confront their difficulties, enabling them to free themselves through active struggles while raising awareness and providing knowledge about social reality.
5. It is important to critique society or individuals by highlighting their weaknesses, follies, vices, and evils and offering constructive suggestions for how society should move away from its current state.
6. To articulate the cultural elements of society, encompassing values, conventions, customs, beliefs, language, etc., with the intention of highlighting and fostering the positive and beneficial features of that culture. Additionally, it motivates individuals to relinquish unfavorable practices, customs, and beliefs.
7. To exert influence over individuals in order to facilitate reforms. Individuals can be swayed to take action or engage in certain behaviours as a result of consuming written or visual artistic creations. It inspires innovative concepts.

Myths and Misconceptions about Literature

Common Myths Several myths surround literature, such as the idea that it is only for the elite or that it is outdated in the digital age. These misconceptions can discourage people from exploring literary works and appreciating their value.

Debunking Misconceptions Literature is for everyone, offering diverse genres and styles to suit all tastes and backgrounds. It remains relevant in the digital age, evolving with new technologies and continuing to inspire and educate readers worldwide.

FAQs

What is literature?

Literature is a body of written works that express ideas, emotions, stories, and concepts through various forms, such as poetry, prose, and drama.

What are the main types of literature?

The main types of literature include poetry, prose, drama, fiction, and non-fiction, each offering unique ways to convey stories and ideas.

Who are some influential literary figures?

Influential literary figures include Homer, William Shakespeare, Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, Virginia Woolf, and James Joyce, each contributing significantly to the literary canon.

How does literature impact society?

Literature influences society by reflecting cultural, political, and social dynamics, challenging existing power structures, and fostering empathy and understanding among diverse groups.

What are the benefits of reading literature?

Reading literature offers cognitive stimulation, stress reduction, improved empathy, enhanced vocabulary, and critical thinking skills, contributing to personal and intellectual growth.

What are some famous literary awards?

Famous literary awards include the Nobel Prize in Literature, Pulitzer Prize, and Man Booker Prize, recognizing outstanding contributions to literature.