Referencing is a crucial aspect of academic writing. It ensures that the original authors of the sources you use in your work are properly credited and helps readers verify the information. With numerous referencing styles available, it’s important to understand the specifics of each to apply them correctly in your papers. This guide covers the most common referencing styles students should know, including APA, MLA, Chicago, and more.
Understanding Referencing
Referencing involves acknowledging the sources of information and ideas that you incorporate into your academic work. Proper referencing is essential to avoid plagiarism, provide evidence for your arguments, and give credit to the original authors.
Importance of Referencing in Academic Writing
Referencing plays a vital role in academic writing for several reasons:
Credibility: Citing sources enhances the credibility of your work.
Verification: Readers can verify the information and further explore the topic.
Acknowledgement: It acknowledges the contributions of other researchers and avoids plagiarism.
Overview of Common Referencing Styles
Different academic disciplines prefer different referencing styles. Here is an overview of the most common ones:
APA Style
History and Development of APA Style
The American Psychological Association (APA) style was developed to help authors achieve clarity in their scholarly writing and to standardize the format of papers and citations.
General APA Guidelines
APA style requires double-spaced text, a title page, and a reference list. The paper should have 1-inch margins and be typed in a readable font, such as 12-point Times New Roman.
APA In-Text Citations
In-text citations in APA style follow the author-date format. For example: (Smith, 2020).
APA Reference List Format
The reference list should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author. Each entry should include the author’s name, publication year, title, and source. For example:
Smith, J. (2020). Title of the Book. Publisher.
MLA Style
History and Development of MLA Style
The Modern Language Association (MLA) style is widely used in the humanities, especially in writing on language and literature.
General MLA Guidelines
MLA style uses a Works Cited page and in-text citations with the author’s last name and page number. The paper should be double-spaced with 1-inch margins.
MLA In-Text Citations
In-text citations in MLA style include the author’s last name and the page number (Smith 23).
MLA Works Cited Format
Entries in the Works Cited list should be alphabetized by the author’s last name and include the author’s name, title, publisher, and publication year. For example:
Smith, John. Title of the Book. Publisher, 2020.
Chicago Style
History and Development of Chicago Style
The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) offers two systems: Notes and Bibliography and Author-Date. It is commonly used in history and other humanities disciplines.
General Chicago Guidelines
Chicago style allows for either the Notes and Bibliography system or the Author-Date system. Papers should have 1-inch margins and be double-spaced.
Chicago Notes and Bibliography System
This system uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end of the paper.
Chicago Author-Date System
The Author-Date system uses in-text citations with the author’s last name, publication year, and a reference list.
Harvard Style
History and Development of Harvard Style
Harvard referencing is commonly used in the UK and Australia, especially in the social and natural sciences.
General Harvard Guidelines
Harvard style requires in-text citations with the author’s last name, year of publication, and a reference list.
Harvard In-Text Citations
In-text citations include the author’s last name and year of publication (Smith, 2020).
Harvard Reference List Format
The reference list should be alphabetized by the author’s last name and include the author’s name, publication year, title, and source.
Vancouver Style
History and Development of Vancouver Style
Vancouver style is used in medical and scientific papers, particularly in publications by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE).
General Vancouver Guidelines
Vancouver style uses numbered citations in the text and a corresponding numbered reference list.
Vancouver In-Text Citations
In-text citations are indicated by numbers in parentheses or superscript: (1).
Vancouver Reference List Format
References are listed in the order they appear in the text, not alphabetically.
IEEE Style
History and Development of IEEE Style
The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style is used mainly in technical fields, particularly in engineering and computer science.
General IEEE Guidelines
The IEEE style uses numbered references in the text, with a corresponding list at the end of the document.
IEEE In-Text Citations
In-text citations are indicated by numbers in square brackets: [1].
IEEE Reference List Format
References are listed in numerical order.
Turabian Style
History and Development of Turabian Style
Turabian style, based on The Chicago Manual of Style, is designed for college students writing papers, theses, and dissertations.
General Turabian Guidelines
Turabian style allows for either the Notes and Bibliography or Author-Date citation methods.
Turabian Notes and Bibliography System
This system uses footnotes or endnotes and a bibliography.
Turabian Author-Date System
The Author-Date system uses in-text citations with the author’s last name, publication year, and a reference list.
CSE Style
History and Development of CSE Style
The Council of Science Editors (CSE) style is used in scientific papers, especially in biology.
General CSE Guidelines
CSE style uses three systems: Name-Year, Citation-Sequence, and Citation-Name.
CSE In-Text Citations
In the Name-Year system, in-text citations include the author’s last name and year of publication (Smith 2020).
CSE Reference List Format
The reference list format varies depending on the system used.
ASA Style
History and Development of ASA Style
The American Sociological Association (ASA) style is used mainly in sociology.
General ASA Guidelines
ASA style uses in-text citations with the author’s last name, year of publication, and a reference list.
ASA In-Text Citations
In-text citations include the author’s last name and year of publication (Smith 2020).
ASA Reference List Format
References should be alphabetized by the author’s last name and include the author’s name, publication year, title, and source.
Bluebook Style
History and Development of Bluebook Style
The Bluebook style is used primarily in legal documents and law reviews.
General Bluebook Guidelines
Bluebook style uses footnotes for citations and a reference list for longer works.
Bluebook In-Text Citations
Citations are provided in footnotes, often with detailed information.
Bluebook Reference List Format
The reference list includes detailed citations for all referenced works.
Oxford Style
History and Development of Oxford Style
Oxford style, also known as the documentary-note style, is used in the humanities, particularly in history.
General Oxford Guidelines
Oxford style uses footnotes or endnotes for citations and a bibliography.
Oxford In-Text Citations
Citations are indicated by superscript numbers in the text, with corresponding footnotes or endnotes.
Oxford Reference List Format
The bibliography is alphabetized by the author’s last name and includes full publication details.
Differences Between Referencing Styles
Different referencing styles vary in their use of in-text citations, reference list formats, and specific guidelines. Understanding these differences is essential for correctly applying the appropriate style.
Choosing the Right Referencing Style for Your Paper
Selecting the right referencing style depends on your field of study, the requirements of your instructor, and the conventions of the academic discipline.
Common Mistakes in Referencing and How to Avoid Them
Common mistakes in referencing include incorrect citation formats, missing citations, and inconsistent use of styles. To avoid these errors, carefully follow the guidelines of the chosen style and double-check your references.
Tools and Resources for Managing References
Several tools and resources can help manage references, including:
How do I choose the right referencing style for my paper?
Choosing the right referencing style depends on your field of study and the requirements of your instructor. Common styles include APA, MLA, and Chicago.
What is the difference between in-text citations and a reference list?
In-text citations are brief references within the text, while the reference list provides detailed information about all the sources cited in the paper.
Can I use multiple referencing styles in one paper?
It’s generally not recommended to mix referencing styles in one paper. Consistency is key to maintaining clarity and credibility.
What should I do if I can’t find the publication date for a source?
If the publication date is unavailable, use “n.d.” (no date) in place of the year.
How do I cite a source with multiple authors?
The format for citing multiple authors varies by style. In APA, list all authors the first time, and for subsequent citations, use “et al.” after the first author’s name if there are more than two authors.
Can I use online citation generators for referencing?
Yes, online citation generators can be helpful, but always double-check their accuracy and ensure they follow the specific guidelines of your chosen style.
Conclusion
Understanding and correctly applying referencing styles is essential for academic writing. By familiarizing yourself with the guidelines of various styles, such as APA, MLA, Chicago, and others, you can ensure your work is credible, properly cited, and free from plagiarism. Use this guide to navigate the complexities of referencing and excel in your academic endeavors.
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The OSCOLA Referencing Style (Oxford University Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities) is a citation system specifically designed for legal scholarship. The OSCOLA Referencing Style provides a standardized method for referencing legal sources and authorities, ensuring clarity, precision, and consistency in legal writing. The OSCOLA style is widely used in legal documents, academic papers, and scholarly articles in the UK and other jurisdictions. The key aspects of the OSCOLA Referencing Style are shown in the table below.
Cases
References include the case name, year, volume number, report series, and page number.
Footnotes
The primary citation method is where references are provided in footnotes rather than in-text citations.
Bibliography
Organized at the end of the document, listing all sources cited, separated into categories such as cases, legislation, and secondary sources.
Books
Bibliographic references include the author’s name, title in italics, edition (if not the first), publisher, and year of publication.
Articles
The primary citation method is where references are provided in footnotes rather than in-text citations.
Legislation
Citations for statutes and statutory instruments include the title, year, and chapter number or other identifying details.
Key Aspects of the OSCOLA Referencing Style
OSCOLA 4th Edition: What’s New?
The 4th edition of OSCOLA introduced several key changes to improve usability and address evolving citation needs in the digital age. Here’s a quick overview of the major updates:
Feature
Change in 4th Edition
Online Sources
Expanded guidelines for citing digital resources
Neutral Citations
Increased emphasis on using neutral citations for cases
Abbreviations
Updated list of standard abbreviations
Foreign Materials
Enhanced guidance on citing international sources
Change in OSCOLA4th Edition
These changes reflect the growing importance of online legal resources and the internationalization of legal scholarship.
General Principles of Formatting
Footnotes: OSCOLA uses footnotes for citations, not in-text parenthetical references.
Superscript Numbers: Place footnote markers after punctuation marks.
The recommended font is Arial 12 (unless other instructions are given).
Since OSCOLA is most commonly employed for citing legal sources, it lacks the specific requirements of a full-fledged style when it comes to the design of a title page and other details. Using footnotes to cite legal documents and files is crucial.
A footnote marker may follow a significant word or phrase.
Superscript numbers that denote footnotes are typically positioned at the conclusion of a sentence.
A superscript number is followed by a full stop at the conclusion of a sentence.
Single quotation marks are employed in place of double quotation marks.
Semicolons are employed to distinguish between multiple citations within a single footnote.
OSCOLA Footnote Citation Guide
Where the same source is referred to again successively on the same page following the OSCOLA referencing style, one is advised to avoid giving a second full citation so that it remains brief and not needlessly repetitive. Instead, it becomes necessary to use a shortened form or other suitable identifier to indicate that it is the same source.
When a later reference is made to a source that has already been cited, it is possible to provide a short identifier, such as the name of the author and a part of the title indicating it is the same source. The identifier should then be followed by a cross-citation in brackets to the original footnote number where the full citation is found.
In the case where the next footnote is the same source as a full citation just before it, then ‘ibid’ (short for ‘ibidem,’ which translates to ‘in the same place’) should be used to indicate that it is the same reference. The use of ‘ibid’ in this way will ease the citation and also avoid unnecessary repetition while keeping the meaning intact.
Example:
Qun Zhang, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3 (10) IJCRB 599.
Ibid 600.
Reference List
Secondary sources should be placed on a separate sheet following the main content of the paper.
Sources must be arranged in alphabetical order and should correspond to the footnotes through the use of a corresponding superscript number in the document.
If multiple sources of the same author are used, they are to be listed in chronological order with 2 em-dash replacing the author’s name.
Example:
Fromm E, The Fear of Freedom (Routledge & Kegan Paul 1942)
— — The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books 1987)
When citing multiple sources from the same author and year, it is necessary to include letter designations after the year of publication (e.g., 2014a, 2014b).
The majority of the paper should be formatted with double spacing, except for the reference list where single spacing is employed, with an additional line to separate each entry.
Examples of OSCOLA Primary Sources
OSCOLA Referencing of Cases from England and Wales
Cases with neutral citations
In the OSCOLA reference style, legal cases should be cited with the case name in italics, followed by the year in square brackets or round brackets depending on whether the year is essential for identifying the volume, the court abbreviation, the case number, and the first page of the report.
Note:
When the case is first mentioned in the text or footnotes, give the full name. After that, it can be shortened.
1. R v R [1991] UKHL 12, [1992] 1 AC 599
2.R (n 14)
A reference to a particular paragraph of a judgment or page of a report (pinpoint) may be stated at the end. Reference to a paragraph is written in square brackets.
3.Smith v Jones [2010] EWCA Civ 143, [2010] 1 WLR 1234 [para 25]–[para 40]
Cases without neutral citations
In the OSCOLA reference style, legal cases without neutral citations should be cited with the case name in italics, followed by the year in square brackets or round brackets (depending on whether the year is essential for identifying the volume), the volume number, the report abbreviation, the first page of the report, and the court in parentheses.
Example:
4. Smith v Brown [2015] UKSC 25, [2015] 2 WLR 789 (SC)
5.Smith (n 11)
Law reports
6.Jones v Smith [2005] CLY 421 (QB)
7.Robinson v Brown [2012] CLY 888 (Ch)
Cases from Scotland
In the OSCOLA reference style for Scottish cases, citations should include the case name in italics, followed by the year in round brackets, the volume number, the report abbreviation, and the first-page number, with no punctuation other than commas separating the page numbers.
For example, a case citation would look like this:
8.Durham v Hislop (1852) 4 D 1188
9.Adams v Advocate General 2023 SC 171 (OH)
Cases from Northern Ireland
10.Smith v Jones [2008] NI 45
UK Legislation
Statutes
11. Sexual Offences Act 2003, s 1(1)(c).
12. Criminal Attempts Act 1981, ss 1(1) and 4(3). 25 17.
Bills
Title HC Bill (session) [number] OR Title HL Bill (session) number
13. Abortion HC Bill (2017-2019) [2].
UK Acts of Parliament
Title year of adoption.
14. Parliament Act 2019.
Parts of UK acts
A short title, year of adoption, session (subsection number) (paragraph).
15. Human Rights Act 1998, s 15(1)(b).
Statutory Instruments, or Sis
Title year/number.
16. Cremation (England and Wales) Regulations 2008, SI 2008/2841.
OSCOLA Referencing of Devolved UK legislatures
Scottish Parliament
Act title asp number (Act of the Scottish Parliament).
17. Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2016 (asp 1).
Scottish SSIs (statutory instruments)
Title with a particular year SSI number.
18. The Letting Agent Registration (Scotland) Regulations 2016, SSI 2016/432.
Northern Ireland Assembly Acts
Title mentioning Northern Ireland year.
19. Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 2013.
Northern Irish Statutory Rules
Title of the Rule, including Northern Ireland year, Statutory Rule number.
20. The Local Government (Specified Bodies) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2012, SR 2012/8.
Welsh legislation
As a rule, specific measures are cited, which may be passed by the Welsh government. In footnotes, they are abbreviated as nawm. Such a citation includes:
Title of the measure year (number).
21. Domestic Fire Safety (Wales) Measure 2011 (nawm 3).
Welsh Statutory Instruments
Order title and year Welsh Statutory Instrument year/Instrument’s number in brackets.
22. The Independent Health Care (Fees) (Wales) Regulations Order 2011 Welsh Statutory Instrument 2011/106 (W. 25).
European Union Legislative Documents
This type of official documentation includes legislation, directives, regulations, and decisions.
European Union Legislation
Title of legislation [year] series mentioned in Official Journal (OJ) issue/first page.
23. Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community [2007] OJ C 306/01.
Directives, Regulations, and Decisions
Type of legislation number title [year] L series in the Official Journal issue/first page.
European Union Directives:24. Council Directive 2001/29/EC on the harmonization of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society [2001] OJ L 167/10.
European Union Regulations:25. Council Regulation (EU) 1984/2003 introducing a system for the statistical monitoring of trade in bluefin tuna, swordfish and big eye tuna within the Community [2003] OJ L 295/1.
European Union Commission Decisions 26. Alcatel/Telettra (Case No IV/M.042) Commission Decision [1991] OJ L 122/48.
Note:
Commission decisions should be cited in the same way as cases.
European Court of Justice (ECJ) and General Court (GC) Judgements
Prefix (“Case C-” for ECJ or “Case T-” for GC) number indicating the case registration Case Name [year] report citation.
27. Case C-557/12 Kone AG v OBB-Infrastruktur [2014] C.M.L.R. 5.
OSCOLA Referencing of International Legislative Resources
United Nations laws
Author Title (date) number:
28. UNGA Res 67/97 (26 August 2008) A/63/332.
Treaties
Title (date of adoption) publication mentioning (Short name) number of the article:
29. Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (adopted 10 June 1958, entered into force 7 June 1959) 330 UNTS 4739 (Foreign Arbitral Awards Convention) art 3.
International Court of Justice (ICJ) documents
Case Title [year] Court’s Report Citation/<link> accessed DD Month YYYY
30. Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia) [2013] ICJ Judgement <https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/155> accessed 24 December 2018.
Examples of OSCOLA Secondary Sources
OSCOLA Referencing of Books
One author
Author, Title (additional information, edition, publisher year)
Sepetys R, Salt to the Sea (Philomel Books 2016)
Footnote citation:
1. Ruta Sepetys, Salt to the Sea (Philomel Books 2016)
Two or three authors
Bohm A and Chaudri D, Securing Australia’s Future: An Analysis of the International Education Markets in India (IDP Education Australia 2000)
Footnote citation:
1. Andrew Bohm and Dean Chaudri, Securing Australia’s Future: An Analysis of the International Education Markets in India (IDP Education Australia 2000) 33–55
Four or more authors
Bell M and others, Universities Online: A Survey of Online Education and Services in Australia (Department of Education, Science and Training 2002)
Footnote citation:
1. Michael Bell and others, Universities Online: A Survey of Online Education and Services in Australia (Department of Education, Science, and Training 2002) 45
Books with editors or translators
Baker R (ed), The Norton Book of Light Verse (W. W. Norton 1986)
Footnote citation:
1. Russell Baker (ed), The Norton Book of Light Verse (W. W. Norton 1986) 105
Note:
For one editor, use ed; for two and more – eds
In a case with a translator, use tr / trs instead of ed/eds
Authors plus editors or translators
Churchill W, The Literary Works of Winston Churchill (Samuel Jackson ed, The Limited Editions Club 1963)
Footnote citation:
1. Winston Churchill, The Literary Works of Winston Churchill (Samuel Jackson ed, The Limited Editions Club 1963) 12
Multiple works by the same author
Using multiple works by the same author poses no challenge, as all are to be cited in footnotes at the bottom of the page.
Fromm E, The Fear of Freedom (Routledge & Kegan Paul 1942)
—. The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (Penguin Books 1987)
Footnote citation:
1. Erich Fromm, The Fear of Freedom (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1942) 33
2. Erich Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1987) 42
Different editions
Kremer J and Moran A, Pure Sport: Practical Sport Psychology (2nd edn, Routledge 2013)
Footnote citation:
1. John Kremer and Aidan Moran, Pure Sport: Practical Sports Psychology (2nd edn, Routledge 2013) 104
Encyclopedia or dictionary
‘Christianity’, The New Encyclopedia Britannica (15th edn, 2018) <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/Church-tradition> accessed 24 December 2018
Footnote citation:
1.‘Christianity’, The New Encyclopedia Britannica (15th edn, 2018) <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/Church-tradition> accessed 24 December 2018
Note:
State either page number(s) or link and access date depending on whether the source is published or found online.
Chapter in an edited book
Higgs M, ‘Change and Its Leadership: The Role of Positive Emotions’ in P. Alex Linley, Susan Harrington, and Nicola Garcea (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work (Oxford University Press 2013) 67–94
Footnote citation:
1. Malcolm Higgs, ‘Change and Its Leadership: The Role of Positive Emotions’ in P. Alex Linley, Susan Harrington, and Nicola Garcea (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work (Oxford University Press 2013) 67–94
OSCOLA Referencing of Articles in Periodicals
Journal article
Author, ‘Title’ [year] Journal Name or Abbreviation first page of article
Author, ‘Title’ (year) volume(number) Journal Name or Abbreviation first page of article
Zhang Q and others, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3(10) Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 599
Footnote citation:
1. Qun Zhang and others, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3(10) Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 599
Online Journals
The OSCOLA referencing of online journals is similar to that of journal articles, but in this case, <URL> or <doi>, and access dates are
given.
Zhang Q and others, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3(10) Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 599 <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6303/744cf0edb78ac8512ecb660b19167b607ddb.pdf> accessed 24 December 2018
Footnote citation:
1. Qun Zhang and others, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3(10) Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 599 <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6303/744cf0edb78ac8512ecb660b19167b607ddb.pdf> accessed 24 December 2018
Newspaper Articles
Gellman B and Nakashima E, ‘US spy agencies mounted 231 offensive cyber-operations in 2011, documents show’ Washington Post (Washington, 13 August 2013) C3.
Footnote citation:
1. Barton Gellman and Ellen Nakashima, ‘US spy agencies mounted 231 offensive cyber-operations in 2011, documents show’ Washington Post (Washington, 13 August 2013) C3
OSCOLA Referencing of Web Sources
Websites and Blogs
Daniels C, ‘Pumpkin Pie’ (Easy Recipes, 25 April 2016) <www.easyrecipes.com/04/25/2016/pumpkinpie> accessed 24 December 2018
Footnote citation:
1. Christie Daniels, ‘Pumpkin Pie’ (Easy Recipes, 25 April 2016) <www.easyrecipes.com/04/25/2016/pumpkin-pie> accessed 24 December 2018
Citing Dissertations and Theses
Thesis or dissertation
Rutz CL, ‘King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues’ (PhD diss., University of Chicago 2013)
Footnote citation:
1. Cynthia Lillian Rutz, ‘King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues’ (PhD diss., University of Chicago 2013) 99–100
Command Papers
Author, Paper Title (number, year).
Prime Minister’s Office and Cabinet Office, Modernising government (Cm 4310, 1999).
Footnote citation:
1. Prime Minister’s Office and Cabinet Office, Modernising government (Cm 4310, 1999) para 15.
Hansard (Official Debate and Speech Records)
House abbreviation Deb date, volume, column.
HL Deb 15 March 2005, vol 670, col 1234
Suffix WS for citing a written statement:
HC Deb 15 April 2013, vol 561, col 18WS.
Prefix WA for citing a written answer:
HL Deb 21 May 2013, vol 745, col WA39.
Suffix WH for citing a debate in Westminster Hall:
HC Deb 29 January 2013, vol 557, cols 179-205WH.
Series numbers for old records:
HC Deb (4th series) 18 July 1900, vol 86, col 341.
Hansard of Standing Committee:
SC Deb (D) 25 May 2004, col 40.
Note:
Since 2014, column references have not been used. More information may be found on the official website https://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/written-questions-answersstatements/written-questions-answers/. Today, a possible relevant citation may look as follows:
HC 10 July 2018, PQ 162501.
Law Commission Reports and Consultation Papers
Law Commission, Report, or Paper Title (number, year).
Law Commission, The 13th Programme of Law Reform (Law Com No 377, 2017).
Footnote citation:
1. Law Commission, The 13th Programme of Law Reform (Law Com No 377, 2017).
2. Law Com No 377.
Interpersonal Communications
Unpublished Letters or Emails
Communication Form from Author to Recipient (DD Month YYYY)
Letter from S Alexander to Gibson WR (1 November 1911).
Interviews
Interviewee’s Name, Position, Educational Institution (if necessary), (Place of the interview date)
Interview with Marilyn Charlton, Professor of Social Science, Swansea University (Swansea 17 July 2017)
FAQs
How do I cite a website in OSCOLA format?
Use the format: Author, ‘Title’ (Website, Date) <URL> accessed [Date]. For example: John Smith, ‘Legal Ethics in the Digital Age’ (Law Blog, 1 June 2023) https://www.lawblog.com/ethics accessed 15 July 2023
What’s the difference between a footnote and a bibliography entry in OSCOLA?
Footnotes use commas as separators and end with a full stop. Bibliography entries use the same information but with different punctuation and a hanging indent: Footnote: 1 HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (3rd ed, Oxford University Press 2012). Bibliography: Hart, HLA, The Concept of Law (3rd ed, Oxford University Press 2012)
How do I use ‘ibid’ in OSCOLA referencing?
Use ‘ibid’ when referring to the same source as in the immediately preceding footnote. If the page number is different, add it after ‘ibid’: 1 Richard Posner, How Judges Think (Harvard University Press 2008) 100. 2 ibid 102.
How should I cite a case with a neutral citation?
Use the neutral citation followed by the law report citation: Corr v IBC Vehicles Ltd [2008] UKHL 13, [2008] 1 AC 884
How do I cite an EU directive in OSCOLA?
Use this format: Directive 2019/790/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on copyright and related rights in the Digital Single Market and amending Directives 96/9/EC and 2001/29/EC [2019] OJ L130/92
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Vancouver Referencing Style is a numeric referencing system that is mostly used in the medical domains and in science. Readers can source the in-text citations by matching the in-text citation with a source in the reference list. This is a numbered system where every source that has been cited within the text is provided with a unique number. The number is attached to a whole reference in a bibliography. The number is attached to the following text citations and kept using the same number. The final bibliography is included in the last part of the document, where full citation information is indicated in numerical order of the sources listed.
Vancouver General Principles of Formatting
In-text Citations
In-text Citations in the Vancouver Referencing Style:
In the Vancouver Referencing Style, the in-text citations are made using numbers. The numbers may be in the form of square brackets [1], curved brackets to the right, (1), or superscript numbers¹. However, please be consistent within the document. The numerical references link the text with the appropriate reference list entry and trace the item cited’s full details.
Consistency in In-text References:
When using the Vancouver style of referencing, you must remain consistent in the choice of in-text reference. This means that if you decide to use references within your work in square brackets [1], curved brackets (1), or superscript numbers¹ then you must retain this throughout your document for all citations. Mixing any type of different in-text references can be confusing for the reader and make your work appear unprofessional. Consistency helps ensure clarity and readability, making it easier for readers to follow your references and locate the corresponding entries in the reference list.
Examples
A recent study [1] highlighted the increasing rates of childhood obesity in urban areas.
A recent study (1) highlighted the increasing rates of childhood obesity in urban areas.
A recent study1 highlighted the increasing rates of childhood obesity in urban areas.
If the cited author’s name is mentioned in a sentence, the numeric in-text citation is placed right after it.
Examples
Erickson (12) said that
Erickson12 said that
In sentences that contain more than one reference, each of the unique sources of information will have its own number.
Example
Dental phobia can be caused by a number of factors, according to research. These include anticipating pain1, having bad experiences with dental treatments in the past2, and feeling helpless while in the dentist’s chair3.
In Vancouver reference style, it is acceptable to use brackets or superscript numbers when citing multiple sources at once.
Examples
The idea behind methodological triangulation is to compare and contrast previous findings with new ones, or to analyze current results using multiple instruments that are specifically designed to assess perception (1, 4, 6).
The idea behind methodological triangulation is to compare and contrast previous findings with new ones or to analyze current results using multiple instruments that are specifically designed to assess perception 1, 4, 6
Note: if the sources cited together in one sentence have sequential numbers, then they can be referenced using the following forms: (1-4), [1-4], or 1-4
Full stops can be put before or after the superscript numbers or the numbers in brackets. Please make sure to consult your instructor or faculty and find out which approach is preferred.
Reference Lists
The reference list should be placed at the end of the paper on a separate page.
According to the Vancouver reference style, it is essential to organize all references at the conclusion of your document. This list must appear on a new page, distinct from the main body of the text. Ensuring the reference list is separate helps maintain clarity and allows readers to locate the sources used easily.
The reference list title should be ‘References’ in Vancouver referencing style.
In the Vancouver reference style, the heading for the list of sources must be labeled ‘References.’ This title should be centered at the top of the page to clearly indicate the section. Using a consistent title like ‘References’ helps standardize academic and professional documents.
Only Arabic ordinals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) should be used in reference lists and in-text citations.
The Vancouver reference style specifies the use of Arabic numerals for both in-text citations and the reference list. This numbering system starts at 1 and continues sequentially throughout the document. Using Arabic ordinals ensures consistency and readability when citing sources.
The numbers matching those in in-text citations in Vancouver referencing style are assigned to the sources in reference lists.
Each number used in the in-text citations corresponds directly to a specific source in the reference list in the Vancouver reference style. For instance, if a source is cited as [1] in the text, it will be listed as number 1 in the references. This method simplifies the process of locating and verifying sources for readers.
The references in Vancouver referencing style are listed in numerical order with the numbers placed at the beginning of each individual source starting with a new line.
In the Vancouver reference style, sources in the reference list are arranged in the order of their appearance in the text. Each reference starts on a new line and begins with its corresponding number. This sequential listing aids in the straightforward tracking of sources cited in the document.
Avoid indenting the entries when compiling a reference list in the Vancouver reference style. Each reference starts flush with the left margin, creating a clean and uniform appearance. This format enhances the list’s readability and maintains a professional layout.
REFERENCE LIST
Citing Books
General book format
When referencing a book using the Vancouver referencing style, the format is as follows:
Author(s):
List the last name followed by the initials of the first names.
If there are multiple authors, list all authors separated by commas.
Title of the Book:
The title should be in sentence case, meaning only the first word of the title, the first word of the subtitle (if any), and any proper nouns should be capitalized.
Do not italicize or underline the title.
Location:
Indicate the city where the publisher is located.
Publisher:
Provide the name of the publishing company.
Year:
Specify the year the book was published.
Example:
Author AA. Title of the book. Location: Publisher; year.
Note: no parts of the reference should be italicized.
Book with a single author
1. Reimann BP. Personality and social psychology research. New York: Nova Biomedical Books; 2008.
Book with two to six authors
2. Robbins SP, Judge TA, Odendaal A, Roodt G. Organisational behavior: global and South African
perspectives. Upper Saddle River: Pearson; 2009.
Note: the author’s names are just listed one after another without using the word ‘and’ or the symbol ‘&’.
Book with more than six authors
3. Johnson J, Nixon D, Stein G, Kaufmann A, George R, Powell M, et al. Experimental medicine and
Its effects. New York: McGraw Hill Publishers; 2010.
Note: ‘et al.’ is put after the name of the sixth author; the rest of the author names are omitted.
Book without an author
If the author of a book is not indicated, simply omit the author constituent from the reference page entry. This category includes dictionaries.
Example
4. Merriam-Webster Dictionary new edition. Springfield: Merriam-Webster; 2016.
eBook accessed from a library-subscribed database
5. Roller MR, Lavrakas, PJ. Applied qualitative research design: a total quality framework approach. New York: The Gilford Press; 2015. [cited 2017 Jan 24]. Available from: Ebook Library.
Note: after the name of the publisher’s location, it is necessary to place the abbreviation of its state in brackets.
Book authored by an organization
This section includes books that list different types of organizations, associations, and corporate or governmental entities as authors.
Example
7. American Nurses Association. Public health nursing: scope and standards of practice. Silver Spring: American Nurses Association; 2013.
Note: capitalize words in the organization’s name as officially accepted by the organization itself (for example, on the official website and the cover of the cited book).
Note: omit “the” before the name of an organization in reference page entries. The American Nurses
Association that authored the book in the example above should appear on the reference page as “American Nurses Association.”
Book authored by a government body
For government bodies, it is recommended to indicate the name of the country to which the body belongs in case the country or nationality is not mentioned in the organization’s name. The name of the country should appear in parentheses after the name of the organization.
Example
8. National Academies of Sciences (US), Division on Earth and Life Studies, Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle. Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. Washington: National Academies Press; 2016.
Note: in the example above, the name of the country is indicated as the US. This is a standardized two-letter ISO code for the United States of America. In Vancouver citation style, if a country needs to be indicated in a reference page entry, ISO codes need to be used. See a list of country codes here.
Note: in the example above, the author (the Committee) is listed as the last after organizations, a part of which it comprises. The names of organizations are separated by commas.
Edited book
9. Thiele F, Mader K, Ashcroft, RE, editors. Bioethics in a small world. New York: Springer Science & Business Media; 2006.
Note: when an edited book is cited, the word ‘editor’ or ‘editors’ is added after the name(s) of the author(s).
Chapter in an edited book
If a book is a compilation of texts by different authors, do not cite it as a single book. Instead, cite a certain section or chapter that you used. The reference page entry should include the name of the chapter’s author (or authors), the chapter’s title, the name of the book’s editor (or editors), and the name of the edited book.
Example
10. Pagel JF, Pegram GV. The role of the primary care physician in sleep medicine. In: Pagel JF, Pandi-Perumal SR, editors. Primary care sleep medicine. 2nd ed. New York: Springer; 2014. p. 12-30.
Edition other than the first
11. O’Connell Smeltzer SC, Bare BG. Brunner and Suddarth’s textbook of medical-surgical nursing. 10th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2003.
Dictionary from a library-subscribed database
12. Mosby’s dental dictionary [Internet]. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Sciences; 2014. Hebephrenia. [cited 2015 Jul 14]. Available from: Credo Reference.
Citing Articles in Periodicals
The titles of scholarly journals from which cited articles are taken need to be abbreviated based on the generally accepted standards. The list of correct abbreviations of the scholarly journals is provided by the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).
General format
Author A, Author B. Article title. Journal title abbreviation. Year Month shortened; vol(no): page-page.
Journal article (print source)
13. Jones E, Shi L, Hayashi AS, Sharma R, Daly C, Ngo-Metzger Q. Access to oral health care: the role of federally qualified health centers in addressing disparities and expanding access. Am J Public Health. 2013 Mar;103(3): 488-493.
Journal articles from more than six authors
14. Melville JL, Reed SD, Russo J, Croicu CA, Ludman EL, Cockburn AL, et al. Improving care for depression in obstetrics and gynecology: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol, 2014 Jun;123(6): 1237–1246.
Note: in an article that has more than six authors, only the first six names are listed. The other names are replaced with ‘et al.’
Article without an author
15. Evidence-based nutrition principles and recommendations for the treatment and prevention of diabetes and related complications. Diabetes Care 2002 Jan;25(suppl 1): s50-s60.
Article from an online source (without known page numbers)
16. Vaziri D, Aal K, Ogonowski C, Von Rekowski T, Kroll M, Marston H, et al. Exploring user experience and technology acceptance for a fall prevention system: results from a randomized clinical trial and a living lab. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act [Internet]. 2016 Jun [cited 2017 Jan 24];13:6 [about 3 p.]. Available from: BioMed Central.
Article from the Internet
17. Weston M, Roberts D. The influence of quality improvement efforts on patient outcomes and nursing work: a perspective from chief nursing officers at three large health systems. OJIN [Internet]. 2013 Sep [cited 2017 Jan 23]; 18(3): n.p. Available from http://www.nursingworld.org/Quality[1]Improvement-on-Patient-Outcomes.html.
Citing Online and Multimedia Sources
DVD
18. Mosley M. Michael Mosley’s science of you [DVD]. Australia: Roadshow Entertainment; 2013.Note: the owner of the intellectual content should be indicated as the author.
Television broadcast
19. Plant-based medicine: Catalyst [television broadcast]. Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Corporation; 2015 Feb 3.
World wide web page: general format
Author A, Author B. Title [Internet]. City and publisher details; [cited Year Month Date]. Available from: URL
Note: A two-letter ISO code of an organization’s country should be put in brackets after its name (if it is not already present, it is the title). See the list of ISO country codes here.
Note: if some data is not available, please omit it.
Conference Proceedings
You have the option to cite the entire conference proceedings or just a specific paper presented at the conference. In the former case, details about the conference and its editor of the proceedings should be included.
Example
21. Castillo RR, Abarquez RF, Aquino AV, Sy RG, Gomez LA, Divinagracia RA, et al. editors. 10thAsia Pacific congress of hypertension—APCH 2014; 2014 Feb 12-15; Cebu City (Philippines). Florence (Italy): Monduzzi Editore, International Proceedings Division; c2014.
Note: the name of the conference, with its original capitalization and superscripts, appears on the reference page as indicated in the proceedings.
Note: the date of access (year proceeded by the letter “c”) needs to be indicated in case the proceedings are accessed from an electronic source.
Report
Reports are cited as books, both in electronic and print forms. Reports might have additional information about them, such as the number of a report, but it can be omitted from the reference page entry.
Example
22. Health Canada. The final report of the task force on cannabis legalization and regulation. Ottawa: Health Canada; 2016.
Report accessed on the Internet
23. Lourey C. A contributing life: the 2012 National Report card on mental health and suicide prevention [Internet]. National Mental Health Commission [cited 2015 Jun 29]. Available from: http://www.mentalhealthcommission.gov.au/media/39273/NMHC_ReportCard_Lo-res.pdf.
If you want to cite unpublished materials that you have accessed during lectures or lessons, you should indicate the source by providing the author’s name, the subject of the lecture or materials, and the date when the information was delivered or accessed.
Example
25. Wallace JW. Interpersonal communication as the source of professional development [unpublished lecture notes]. University of Georgia; notes provided at a lecture given 2017 January 11. Note: it is advised to always consult your instructor on the use of such sources. Unpublished lecture notes and course materials fall into the personal communication category of sources, the use of which may be somewhat questionable.
Thesis or dissertation
Some dissertations get published in print form, in which case they can be cited as books. For other cases, see the example below.
Example
26. Della Porta MD. Enhancing the effects of happiness-boosting activities: the role of autonomy support in an experimental longitudinal intervention [doctoral thesis]. [Riverside (US)]: University of California; 2012.
Note: the type of work, such as doctoral thesis, dissertation, or master’s thesis is in square brackets after the work’s name.
Note: after this, indicate the place of publication, which is the location of the university where the thesis or dissertation was defended. Do not forget to include a country code (see the list of ISO country codes here)
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The Chicago Citation Style Guide (17th ed.)-Author-Date is a referencing format developed in accordance with The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition, published by the University of Chicago Press in 2017. This manual is intended for writers and practitioners as the guidelines for citing sources in the right format and technique. The author-date system is followed by scientists and social science scholars and writers, where each quoted material includes the author’s last name and the year the material being quoted was published exactly the same as the full bibliographies on the reference list at the last part of the document.
General Principles of Formatting
The margins should be 1″ (2.54 cm) on all sides, which is similar to MLA, APA, and Havard format.
Use Arial 12 pt. font (unless the instructions require a different font), double-spaced.
Name reference list either “References” or “Works Cited.”
Alphabetize the sources on the reference list by the author’s last names (or, if no author or editor is given, by the title or, failing that, a descriptive phrase).
For successive entries by the same author(s), translator(s), editor(s), or compiler(s), a 3-em
dash replaces the name(s) after the first appearance. The entries are arranged chronologically by year of publication in ascending order, not alphabetized by title
Title Page
The title is placed in the center of the page and written in UPPERCASE. Use a colon to separate the main title from the subtitle. The subtitle should be written below the title line. The student’s name, tutor’s name, other class information, date, and year are located in the lower part of the page, written in sentence case. There should be no page numbers on the title page or page with the table of contents/outline.
Level 5: Placed at the beginning of the paragraph. It can be italicized or bold, sentence case. A period is used to separate the subheading and the rest of the text in the paragraph.
Reference List
The reference list is inserted at the end of your paper; any source that you use needs to be included in the reference page and cited in the text.
Indent all lines after the first line in the entry (hanging indent); the lines should be indented one[1] half an inch (1.27 cm) from the left margin of your paper.
Remember to invert authors’ names: Last Name, First Name. For example, Clifton, Lucille.
The reference list is always alphabetized by the first word in the reference entry (from A to Z).
When alphabetizing titles or group names as authors, go by the first significant word (disregard a, an, the)
All words except for articles and prepositions should be capitalized in the titles of your sources in the text and on a reference page.
Italicization is applied to books and periodical journals’ titles.
Double quotation marks are used for the titles of articles and book chapters.
References
The references list is centred and the heading for the page reads: References. If you have used but one (1) source, the heading is Reference. Maximum capitalization is used in the heading, i.e. capitalize the first word, the last word and all principal words including those that follow hyphens in compound terms. Every source you refer to on the reference page must be cited in the body of the text. Every source you cite in the body of the text must have a reference entry on the reference page.
Citing Books
General format
Author’s Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. Title of the Book. Publisher’s Location: Publisher’s Name.
One author
Clifton, Lucille. 1993. The Book of Light. Washington: Copper Canyon Press.
Two to ten authors
Lechner, Mildred, and Ralph Lechner. 1998. The World of Salt Shakers: Antique & Art Glass Value Guide. Paducah: Collector Books.
Budker, Dmitry, Derek F. Kimball, and David P. DeMille. 2004. Atomic Physics: An Exploration through Problems and Solutions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
More than ten authors
The names of the first ten authors are listed, and then “et al.” is added.
Mehrer, Mark, John Flatman, Natt Flemming, Jill Baxter, Caleb Orser, Keit Wescot, Din Dale, Derek F. Kimball, Ralph Lechner, David Morgan et al. 2015. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 6th ed. New York: Garland Science.
Corporate Author
World Health Organization. 2006. Comprehensive Cervical Cancer Control: A Guide to Essential Practice. Geneva: World Health Organization.
No author
Articles at the beginning of book titles are omitted to maintain alphabetical order. Mythology: Myths, Legends and Fantasies. 2003. Sydney: Hodder Headline Australia.
Multiple works by the same author
The works are arranged in chronological order. A 3-em dash and period replace the author’s name in every subsequent reference entry.
Fromm, Erich. 1942. The Fear of Freedom. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
—. 1987. The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
—. 1992. The Art of Being. New York: Continuum.
Multiple works published in the same year by the same author
The works are arranged in alphabetical order by title. The letters “a,” “b,” “c,” etc. follow the year of publication in each entry. These assist readers in distinguishing the sources cited parenthetically.
Brodsky, Joseph. 2011a. Less than One: Selected Essays. London: Penguin Press.
—. 2011b. On Grief And Reason: Essays. London: Penguin Press.
Edition other than the first
Alberts, Bruce. 2015. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 6th ed. New York: Garland Science.
Reprint edition
Austen, Jane. (1813) 2003. Pride and Prejudice. London: T. Egerton. Reprint, New York: Penguin Classics. Citations refer to the Penguin edition.
An edited book with no author
Monanty, Chandra Talpade, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres, eds. 1991. Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Multivolume works
Nichols, Bill, ed. 1985. Movies and Methods. Vol. 2 of An Anthology. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Tillich, Paul. 1951–63. Systematic Theology. 3 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
A translated book
Dostoyevsky, Fyodor. 1992. The Idiot. Translated and edited by Alan Myers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Encyclopedia/dictionary
Swators, William H., Peter Kivisto, Barbara J. Denison, and James McClennon, eds. 1998. Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.
Chapter in an edited book
Balsamo, Anne. 1995. “Forms of Technological Embodiment.” In Cyberspace/Cyberbodies/Cyberpunk: Cultures of Technological Embodiment, edited by Mike Featherstone and Roger Burrows, 215–237. London: Sage Publications.
E-book
Austen, Jane. 2007. Pride and Prejudice. New York: Penguin Classics. Kindle.
Borel, Brooke. 2016. The Chicago Guide to Fact-Checking. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ProQuest ebrary.
Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel. 2001. The Hobbit or There and Back Again. New York: Harper Collins. https://www.readanybook.com/ebook/the-hobbit-17.
Citing Articles in Periodicals
General format
Author’s Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title of the Article.” Full Title of the Journal volume number (issue number): page numbers.
Note: URL or DOI is added at the end of the entry for online sources.
Journal article in print
Seaton, Philip, and Takayoshi Yamamura. 2015. “Japanese Popular Culture and Contents Tourism
– Introduction.” Japan Forum 27 (1): 1–11.
Meyerovitch, Eva. 1959. “The Gnostic Manuscripts of Upper Egypt.” Diogenes, no. 25, 84–117.
Note:
If there is no volume but only an issue, write “no.” before the issue.
Online journal article
Spielmann, Katherine, Matthew Peeples, Donna Glowacki, and Andrew Dugmore. 2016. “Early Warning Signals of Social Transformation: A Case Study from the US Southwest.” Plos ONE 11 (10): 1–18. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0163685.
Newspaper and magazine articles in print
Burchard, Hank. 1998. “Van Gogh: The Full Palette.” The Washington Post, October 2, 1998, 24–25.
New York Times. 2002. “In Texas, Ad Heats Up Race for Governor.” July 30, 2002.
Note:
If there is no author, the magazine/newspaper title stands for the author.
State edition of the magazine in parentheses after the magazine title.
Citing Conferences
Conference proceedings/presentations
Dally, David, and Paul Gross. 2003. “Modernization Concepts: Utilizing Bayer Countercurrent Packed
Bed Technology.” Paper presented at the 64th Annual International Water Conference,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, October 19-23.
Citing Dissertations and Theses
Thesis or dissertation
Hernandez, Ivonne. 2014. “Acculturation, Self-Efficacy and Breastfeeding Behavior in a Sample
of Hispanic Women.” PhD diss., University of South Carolina.
Rutz, Cynthia Lillian. 2013. “King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues.” PhD diss., University of
Chicago.
Note:
If the thesis/dissertation contains a title of the book, write only the book name in Italics.
Citing Learning Environment
Lecture/presentation
Mahoney, Karen Murrey. “Overview of the Over-the-Counter Drug Monograph Process.” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, June 10, 2016.
Citing Online Sources
Entire website: corporate author
WHO. 2017. World Health Organization (website). Accessed March 22, 2018.
http://www.who.int/en/.
Website (no date)
CivicPlus Content Management System. n.d. City of Ithaca, New York (website). Accessed April 6,
2018. http://www.cityofithaca.org/.
Page from a website
Frank, Anne. 2017. “Education.” AnneFrankHouse. Accessed April 3, 2018. http://www.annefrankhouse.org/en/Education/.
Page with an unknown author
Oath Inc. 2018. “Privacy Center.” Privacy & Terms. Last modified April 2018. Accessed December 7, 2018. https://policies.oath.com/us/en/oath/privacy/index.html.
Note:
Use website name as author
Image
Jean, James. 2014. “MIZU”. Accessed January 24, 2018.
Germano, William. 2017. “Futurist Shock.” Lingua Franca (blog), Chronicle of Higher Education. February 15, 2017. http://www.chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2017/02/15/futurist[1]shock/.
Saunders, Rip. 2017. “Fintech Groups Express Support for OCC Charter,” RipSaunders (blog). January 20, 2017. http://ripsaunders.livejournal.com/375181.html.
Social media
Díaz, Junot. 2016. “Always surprises my students when I tell them that the ‘real’ medieval was more diverse than the fake ones most of us consume.” Facebook, February 24, 2016. https://www.facebook.com/junotdiaz.writer/posts/972495572815454.
O’Brien, Conan (@ConanOBrien). 2015. “In honor of Earth Day, I’m recycling my tweets.” Twitter, April 22, 2015, 11:10 a.m. https://twitter.com/ConanOBrien/status/590940792967016448.
Souza, Pete (@petesouza). 2016. “President Obama bids farewell to President Xi of China at the conclusion of the Nuclear Security Summit.” Instagram photo, April 1, 2016. https://www.instagram.com/p/BDrmfXTtNCt/.
Akira. Directed by Katsuhiro Otomo. 1987. London: Manga Entertainment, 2003. DVD.
Citing Governmental Sources
Government publication/standard
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2011. Let’s Eat for the Health of It. No. 232-CP. https://www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/27_DGCB-LEFTHOI.pdf.
In-Text Citations
Books
one author
Note that no punctuation is used between the name and the date, but a comma separates the page number.
Example: According to the observations, “traditional industrial psychology no longer met the
varied needs of organizations” (Gallos 2006, xv).
When the information from the source is paraphrased, the page number is not required. Example: The most commonly used definition of organization development is unsuitable for contemporary corporate reality (Gallos 2006).
Two or three authors
All authors are listed after the citation in the same order as in the references list. The word “and” is
used to separate the authors.
Example: “Morality, it could be argued, represents the way that people would like the world to work —
whereas economics represents how it does work” (Levitt and Dubner 2005, 11).
More than three authors
List only the first of the authors from the list, followed by et al.
Example: There is a visible shift towards experience-based incentives in the HRM field
Example: Applicability of school education is currently a priority among educators (Savery 2014).
Multiple sources
If more than one source is cited in the same sentence, list them alphabetically and separate them with a semicolon.
Example: Most definitions characterize OD as managed vertically (Chang 2009; Smith 2013; Wright 2010).
Different authors with the same surnames
Use initials before last names to distinguish between the authors.
Example: Globalization is credited for fueling the off-shore practices (H. Wang 2012). However, according to Y. Wang (2012), its impact on the diversification of markets is often overlooked in this context.
Same year/same author
If an author has more than one publication in one year, write the author’s last name followed by the date and a corresponding letter from the references list.
Example: Perceived conflict is a stage at which the events are identified as a source of disturbance (Finkelman 2012a).
A source with no date
If the date of publication cannot be ascertained, write the author’s last name followed by Example: Despite the best efforts of the researchers, neither of these claims was
corroborated (Maxwell n.d.).
A source quoted in another work
Example: The original work by Einstein contained numerous arithmetical errors (as cited in
Aslan 2013).
Scholarly journal article
Journal citations share citation style with books but require mentioning the page.
Example: There is a direct relationship between employee engagement and productivity (Johnson et al.
2014, 533).
Newspaper article
Example: The procession participants were “treated in the most unacceptable way” (Barber 2011,
D2).
Entire website
Use the name of the website followed by the date of publication or the date of accessing the source.
Example: The rules of the site explicitly forbid using it only for business purposes (WHO 2016).
Page from a website
Include the name of the author instead of the name of the resource.
Example: Value added may or may not result in changes in the product’s price (Stephens 2016).
Corporate Author
If the information comes from an organization or other corporate entity, list its name in the place of
the author.
Example: Privacy and integrity are the focus of the new regulations (British Government 2014).
Page with an unknown author
Use the name of the website in an in-text citation.
Example: (Oath Inc. 2018).
Page with unknown author and date
Use the name of the website followed by n.d.
Example: Despite the best efforts of experts, the content of the manuscript remains unknown (WHO
n.d.).
Video/Film
List the title of the video and a publication/access date.
The absurdity of the situation reaches its peak in the apprehension scene (Boyz n the Hood 1991).
Lecture/presentation
Write the lecture author and date.
Example: Economies of scale have a strong influence on off-shoring practices (Donnerly 2014).
Government publication/standard
List the name of the organization followed by the year of publication.
Example: Ethylmercury in standard doses has no known effect on health (USFDA 2014).
Social media
Example:
(Díaz, 2016)
(O’Brien 2015)
(Souza 2016)
Dissertation/thesis
List the author’s name and publication date.
Example: The traditional shrimp industry was the first to feel the impact of globalization (Janet 2005).
Conference Proceedings
Authors’ names are followed by the year of the publication.
Example: The critical approach was considered evident only in a fraction of cases (Gentry and Simmons 2001)
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The MLA Format and Citation Style Guide 9th Edition is an authoritative resource provided by the Modern Language Association for writers and researchers. This guide offers comprehensive instructions on formatting academic papers and properly citing sources according to MLA standards. The 9th edition, updated to reflect current practices and technologies, includes guidelines for in-text citations, the works cited list, and overall document formatting. It is widely used in the humanities, especially literature, languages, and cultural studies, ensuring uniformity and professionalism in scholarly writing.
MLA General Principles of Formatting
Use Times New Roman 12 pt. font (unless the instructions require a different font), double-spaced.
Page numbers have to be located in the upper-right corner.
The last name should be in the upper-right header preceding the page number.
MLA does not require a title page (but one may be included if required).
In bibliographical entries, lines other than the first one are indented.
On the first page, it is necessary to provide the MLA header in the top left corner (for papers without a title page):
Title Page
The title page of MLA format contains student information and the paper’s title, as shown below.
Headings
Headings in the paper must be formatted the following way:
Heading Level 1: bold, flush left
Heading Level 2: italics, flush left
Works Cited List
All sources used in papers written following MLA style should be mentioned under the “Works Cited” heading on a separate page. Each entry is written separately, and it consists of core elements that are included in a specific order. Some optional elements may also be added, depending on the situation.
Below is the list of the core elements in the order they should appear on a reference page.
1. Author
2. Title of source
3. Title of container
4. Other contributors
5. Version
6. Number
7. Publisher
8. Publication date
Author
The author’s last name is followed by a comma, and all other full names as they are mentioned in the work. The element ends with a period in the reference list, such as Jameson or Carl. The in-text variant is (Jameson 44).
Title of Source
Title is the next element after the author, and it is in italics (e.g., book or journal titles) or in quotation marks, not italicized (e.g., article titles). Every word in this entry and Title of Container is capitalized apart from articles and prepositions.
Title of Container
This constituent indicates if the work was a part of a larger volume or journal.
Other Contributors
This element states other contributors. Such descriptions precede their names:
adapted by
directed by
edited by
illustrated by
introduction by
narrated by
performance by
translated by
Version
Version is commonly referred to as an edition and may appear in the reference list entry as 8th ed.
Number
This element shows the volume used (vol. 2) or issue number of a journal (vol. 4, no. 3).
Publisher
This information can be found on the source’s copyright page, which shows the publisher’s name followed by a comma. When an organization is both author and publisher of a work, the organization’s name is given only once, usually as the publisher. No author is stated.
Publication Date
This element indicates when the publication was produced (South-Western Cengage Learning, 2010). These aspects are the most common elements used in MLA citation style, but their format depends on the type of publication and citation (in-text or reference list).
Works Cited
Citing Books
General book format
Structure:
Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication Date.
Sepetys, Ruta. Salt to the Sea. Philomel Books, 2016.
Two authors
The second author should appear as they are mentioned in the book.
Example:
Grey, Ann, and Erin Bell. History on Television. Routledge, 2013.
Three or more authors
If there are three or more authors, the first author must be followed by “et al.”
Example:
White, Karen, et al. The Forgotten Room. Berkley, 2016.
Corporate/organization author
The corporation’s name should start the line and appear in the text instead of the author.
Example:
World Trade Organization. From GATT to the WTO: The Multilateral Trading System in the New
Millennium. Kluwer Law International, 2000.
Unknown author
Example:
Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather. Oxford UP, 2011.
Note:
• “University” and “Press” in the names of academic presses are abbreviated to “U” and “P”.
Two or more works by the same author
Three (3) hyphens and a period at the beginning of the following line represent the same author’s name.
Example:
Borroff, Marie. Language and the Poet: Verbal Artistry in Frost, Stevens, and Moore. U of Chicago P,
1979.
—. Pearl: A New Verse Translation. W. W. Norton, 1977.
Two or more works by the same author in the same year
Example:
Jones, Cal. Assessing Hypotheses. U of Western Sydney, 1999.
—. Forming Hypotheses. U of Western Sydney, 1999.
Author with an editor
The editors’ names should appear as it is presented in the book.
Example:
Howells, William Dean. Their Wedding Journey. Edited by John K. Reeves, Indiana UP, 1968.
Author with a translator
Example:
Eco, Umberto. The Prague Cemetery. Translated by Richard Dixon, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2010.
Editor with no author
Example:
Baker, Russell, editor. The Norton Book of Light Verse. W. W. Norton, 1986.
Work in an anthology (chapter in a book)
Example:
Arnold, Matthew. “Sweetness and Light.” Cultural Theory: An Anthology, edited by Imre Szeman and
Timothy Kaposy, Wiley-Blackwell, 2011, pp. 12–17.
Edition other than the first
Example:
Tortora, Gerald J., and Bryan H. Derrickson. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 14th ed., Wiley
Global Education, 2013.
Multivolume work
Some book series may consist of several volumes. When citing such, it is necessary to state the volume of the book where the information was taken from. However, if the volume has its own name, it is formatted as a book.
Example:
Priestley, Joseph. Experiments and Observations on Different Types of Air. Vol. 2, Johnson, 1775.
Encyclopedia/dictionary
This entry should not include information about the publisher or page number.
Example:
“Activist Media.” A Dictionary of Journalism. 2nd ed., 2016.
Foreword, introduction, preface, or afterword
Example:
Priestley, Joseph. Preface. Experiments and Observations on Different Types of Air, by Priestley, vol. 2, Johnson, 1775, pp. v–xxviii.
Online book
The basic book format is used here, followed by the name of the electronic library (italicized) and the URL.
Omit https:// or https:// from URLs unless you want to hyperlink them or it’s a DOI link.
If a URL runs more than three full lines, truncate to the host.
For example, hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.07588.0001.001 may become hdl.handle.net
Citing Articles in Periodicals
This section focuses on articles in journals, magazines, and newspapers. The month has to be
abbreviated if used (Jan., Feb., or Mar., except June, July, and Sept.). In general, the citation will look like this:
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of an Article.” Title of Periodical, vol. #, no. #, YYYY, pp. #-#.
Scholarly journal article
Example:
Zhang, Qun. “Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review.” Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, vol. 3, no. 10, 2012, pp. 599–605.
Note:
• Use “p.” if the article is located on one page.
Scholarly journal article (no author)
Example:
“Understanding Benefits and Limitations of Six Sigma.” International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, vol. 2, no. 1, 2012, pp. 1–9.
Magazine article
Example:
Park, Alice. “The Story about a Viral Photo of Opioid Overdose.” Time, 24 Jan. 2017, p. 45.
Baker, Aryn. “A Climate Solution Lies Deep Under the Ocean—But Accessing It Could Have Huge Environmental Costs.” Time, 13 Sept. 2021, time.com/6094560/deep-sea-miningenvironmental-costs-benefits.
Newspaper article
Example:
Mathews, David. “From Draft Town to Gray Skies.” The Chicago Defender, 28 Apr. 2015, pp. 2–6.
Timsit, Annabelle, et al. “Los Angeles school board to vote on vaccine mandate for students.” The Washington Post, 09 Sept. 2021, www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/09/08/covid-delta variant-live-updates
Editorial in newspaper
An editorial is cited like any article in a periodical, but it is necessary to state that it is an “Editorial” after the work’s title.
Example:
“Who’s Afraid of Betsy DeVos.” Editorial. The Wall Street Journal, 17 Jan. 2017, p. 10.
Letter to the editor
Example:
“Rebellion against the Weird.” Letter. The Guardian, 27 Jan. 2017, p. 12.
It uses principles similar to those of an editorial in a newspaper and states the type of publication—A letter.
Book or film review
To cite a review, include the title of the review (if available), then the phrase “Review of,” and provide the title of the work (in italics for books, plays, and films; in quotation marks for articles, poems, and short stories). Finally, provide performance and/or publication information.
Examples:
Review Author. “Title of Review (if there is one).” Review of Performance Title by Author/Director/Artist/Editor. Title of Periodical, Day Month Year, page.
Seitz, Matt Zoller. “Life in the Sprawling Suburbs, If You Can Really Call It Living.” Review of Radiant City, directed by Gary Burns and Jim Brown. New York Times, 30 May 2007, p. E1.
Weiller, K. H. Review of Sport, Rhetoric, and Gender: Historical Perspectives and Media Representations, edited by Linda K. Fuller. Choice, Apr. 2007, p. 1377.
Article in an online journal
Example:
Dufresne, Christopher, et al. “Broad-Scale Genetic Diversity of Cannabis for Forensic Applications.” PLoS ONE, vol. 12, no. 1, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170522.
If the article can also be found in print, it is necessary to mention page numbers.
Example:
Dufresne, Christopher, et al. “Broad-Scale Genetic Diversity of Cannabis for Forensic Applications.” PLoS ONE, vol. 12, no. 1, 2017, pp. 458–471, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170522.
Article from an online database (or other electronic subscription service)
Cite online databases (e.g., LexisNexis, ProQuest, JSTOR, ScienceDirect) and other subscription services as containers. Thus, provide the database title italicized before the DOI or URL. If a DOI is not provided, use the URL instead. Provide the date of access if you wish.
Examples:
Chan, Evans. “Postmodernism and Hong Kong Cinema.” Postmodern Culture, vol. 10, no. 3, May 2000. Project Muse, https://doi.org/10.1353/pmc.2000.0021
Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal, vol. 50, no. 1, 2007, pp. 173–96. ProQuest, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0018246X06005966.
Article in an online magazine/newspaper
Example:
Kwakkel, Erik. “The Beauty of the Injured Book.” Medieval Fragments, 02 May 2014, medievalfragments.com/2014/05/02/the-beauty-of-the-injured-book.
PDF of an online journal article
Example:
Jamali, Hamid R. and Majid Nabavi. “Open access and sources of full-text articles in Google Scholar in different subject fields.” Scientometrics, vol. 105, no. 3, 2015, pp.1635-1651. ResearchGate, www.researchgate.net/publication/280303439_Open_access_and_sources_of_fulltext_articles_in_Google_Scholar_in_different_subject_fields. PDF download.
Citing Web Sources
General format
Editor, author, or compiler name (if available). Name of Site. Version number, Name of institution/organization affiliated with the site (sponsor or publisher), date of resource creation (if available), URL, DOI, or permalink. Date of access (mentioned only if there is no publication date!).
Entire website
When citing an entire website, it is necessary to provide the full URL (without https://) and the date when the source was accessed.
Example:
Starbucks: Coffee and Espresso. Starbucks Coffee Company, 2016, www.starbucks.com/.
Felluga, Dino. Guide to Literary and Critical Theory. Purdue U, 28 Nov. 2003, www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/.
Page from the website (no publication date)
Example:
Pereira, Rachel. “How to Make an Interesting Art Piece Using Tree Branches.” eHow, www.ehow.com/how_2227693_art-piece-using-tree-branches.html. Accessed 24 Jan. 2017.
This format can be used when citing famous paintings, sculptures, and artworks that are available online. Provide the artist’s name, the work of art italicized, the date of creation, and the institution and city where the work is housed. Follow this initial entry with the name of the website in italics and the date of access.
Example:
Van Gogh, Vincent. Starry Night. 1889. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. MoMA Learning, www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/vincent-van-gogh-the-starry-night-1889.
If the work is cited on the web only, provide the artist’s name and the title in quotation marks, and follow the website citation format. If the work is posted via a username, use that username for the author.
Example:
Burtinsky, Edward. “Silver Lake Operations #16. Lake Lefroy, Western Australia.” Picture Stories, National Geographic, 11 Jan. 2017, www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/proof/2017/01/edward-burtynsky-earth-humanlandscapes/.
Entire blog
The date can usually be found at the bottom of the web window, along with the copyright information.
If there is a general discussion of a film, the film title should be followed by the names of creators and performers. The name of the distributor is also required.
Example:
Die Hard. Directed by John McTiernan, Twentieth Century Fox, 1988.
Television Episode
Examples:
“The Iron Throne.” Game of Thrones, season 8, episode 6, HBO, 19 May 2019.
“Tradition.” Grey’s Anatomy, created by Shonda Rhimes et al., season 17, episode 15, ABC, 20 May 2021.
Podcast/YouTube
The video’s name is followed by the hosting website’s name (italicized). The uploader’s name or username should be mentioned along with the download date.
Example:
“Planet Earth II Continues: Official Trailer.” YouTube, uploaded by BBC Earth, 25 Nov. 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8yo_Sp-rGY.
Social Media
Structure:
Author [@author’s handle]. “Title.” Social Media Platform, DD Mon. Year, link.
Examples:
APA Style [@APAStyle]. “A new way to master APA Style is here!” Facebook, 01 Sept. 2021, www.facebook.com/APAStyle/posts/6734360253256004.
APA Style [@APAStyle]. “The Mastering APA Style Student Workbook engages users online with interactive questions to learn and apply principles of #7thEdition #APAStyle and scholarly writing.” Twitter, 01 Sept. 2021, twitter.com/APA_Style/status/1433128273068838920.
If the title is too long, you can shorten it, but ensure that the identification of the work is unambiguous.
Citing Dissertations / Theses
Dissertation
The main elements of a dissertation citation are the same as those of a book. Conclude with an indication of the document type (e.g., “PhD dissertation”). The degree-granting institution may be included before the document type (though this is not required). If the dissertation was accessed through an online repository, include it as the second container after all the other elements.
Example:
Bishop, Karen Lynn. Documenting Institutional Identity: Strategic Writing in the IUPUI Comprehensive Campaign. 2002. Purdue U, PhD dissertation.
Dissertation available online
Mitchell, Mark. The Impact of Product Quality Reducing Events on the Value of Brand-Name Capital: Evidence from Airline Crashes and the 1982 Tylenol Poisonings. 1987. PhD dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Citing Learning Environment
Lecture
The city must be mentioned if a lecture or other live performance is cited. However, this should be left out if it is already in the name of the event. The name of the organization should follow the name of the meeting. The speech title is enclosed in quotation marks. A lecture or other address heard in person may be indicated as such at the end of the entry.
Example:
Atwood, Margaret. “Silencing the Scream.” Boundaries of the Imagination Forum. MLA Annual Convention, 29 Dec. 1993, Royal York Hotel, Toronto. Lecture.
Citing Governmental Sources
Government publication
If the author is unknown, mention the government and the department. The name of the publishing office must follow the title of the document.
Example:
Great Britain, Ministry of Transport. Increasing Security in London Airports: Strategies for Future. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2003.
The main scheme for an in-text citation is the first name that appears in the source listing (usually an author’s name) followed by a page number, which is always put in parentheses.
A source without page numbers or any other form of explicit, fixed part numbering must be cited as a whole: include in the text or in parentheses enough information for the reader to find the corresponding entry in the works-cited list—usually the author’s last name.
An author named in a signal phrase
Mention the author in the sentence, and end the sentence with a page number for paraphrased information:
Example: According to Barton, teenagers are influenced by marketing campaigns in social media (68).
The author is not named in a signal phrase.
Note that there is no comma between the author’s name and the page number. Example: Teenagers are influenced by social media marketing campaigns (Barton 68).
Unknown author
If the author is unknown, the title that appears first in the source entry should be used with the same formatting and punctuation. If it is too long, reduce to the first several words in parentheses:
Example: Many young people attended Woodstock in the 1970s (Readings on the Past Century 89).
Example: Readings on the Past Century: Music and Protest mentions that many young people attended Woodstock in the 1970s (89).
Unknown page number
If there is no page number and the source is not divided by chapters, paragraphs, or other sections, do not include it in the in-text citation. Do not count unnumbered paragraphs or other parts.
Example: Young parents tend to have higher levels of stress for their children than experienced couples (Ford).
More than one work by the same author
When you are referring to more than one work by an author, it is necessary to state a shortened version of the title. The examples show how to represent an article (title is in quotation marks):
Example: (Kotler, “Kotler on Marketing” 65), (Kotler, “Marketing Management” 76).
However, when the author’s last name is used in the sentence, the in-text reference will be formatted this way:
Example: (“Kotler on Marketing” 65), (“Marketing Management” 76).
Titles are provided in italics for books.
Two authors
When making a reference to two co-authors, it is necessary to use “and” to connect their last names.
Example: (Grey and Bell 45).
Three or more authors
If the Works Cited entry shows that a work has three or more than three authors, “et al.” is used starting from the first quote or reference.
Example: (White et al. 456).
Corporate Author
If the author is an organization or corporate entity, include its full name in the in-text citation. If you refer to the organization often, mention the title in full at least once and use an abbreviation in the subsequent in-text citations.
Example: (World Trade Organization 56).
Authors with the same last name
To differentiate between authors with the same last name in in-text citations, use their initials.
Example: (R. Smith 45), (J. Smith 56).
Encyclopedia
When citing an encyclopedia or a part of it, it is necessary to put the article in quotation marks as it is stated in the reference list entry.
Example: (“Activist Media” 5).
Multivolume work
When citing information from different volumes, it is necessary to indicate a volume number. However, this is not necessary if only one volume is used.
Example: (Priestley 1: 45).
Two or more works in the same parentheses
It is necessary to use a semicolon to divide references and list them in alphabetical order.
Example: (Clark 45; Roberts 65).
Indirect sources
Provide the author of the original source in a signal phrase and include a citation of the secondary source in parentheses. Note that only the secondary source has to be included in the Works Cited.
Example: Smith argues that “personalistic systems provide the most accurate representation of a patient’s identity” (. Jones 82).
An entire work/website
When citing an entire website, book, or any other long source, the title will be shortened and presented in
italics (if the author is unknown).
Example: (Starbucks).
Work in anthology
A work in an anthology is cited using the principles of general MLA format. In this case, the information in parentheses will reflect the last name of the author of the short work, along with the page number.
Example: (Arnold 12).
Government publication
Governmental publications are cited as corporate authors. In this case, the in-text citation must include the full name of the department and the page or paragraph number.
Example: (United States Department of Labor 5).
Dissertation
If the author is known, use common citation rules.
Example: (Jameson 65).
Lecture
In most cases, the information about the lecturer is known.
Example: (Green 1).
Multimedia sources
Sometimes, it will be necessary to reference various multimedia sources such as a video, film, podcast, YouTube video, or image. For sources that have a particular length, it may be necessary to state particular minutes that the quotation or text refers to, such as (00:01:23-00:01:56). However, this is not a requirement.
Video or film
General rules for MLA referencing are applied when citing a video or a film. In the first example below, the title of the film is italicized as in the Works Cited (refer to example 1 in Works Cited). In the second example, the last name of the director is provided (refer to example 2 in Works Cited).
Example: (Die Hard) or (McTiernan).
Podcast/YouTube
Citing this type of source also depends on how it appears on the Works Cited page. In this case, it is reasonable to state the author (user name) if known or provide the title of the work in quotation marks.
Example: (Andersen 00:01:23-00:01:56).
Image from website
In the case of a picture or photograph, if the author is known, it is reasonable to state the author, such as (Gogh) or (Burtinsky). With an unknown author, present it the same way as it is stated in Works Cited.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the latest edition of the MLA Handbook?
The latest edition is the 9th edition, published in 2021.
How do I format block quotes in MLA?
Indent block quotes one inch from the left margin. Do not use quotation marks, and double-space the text.
Can I use footnotes in MLA format?
Yes, but it is not necessary. MLA allows the use of footnotes or endnotes for supplementary information. However, in-text citations are the primary method for citing sources.
How do I cite a source with no author in MLA?
Use a shortened title of the work in place of the author’s name. For example, (“Impact of Global Warming” 45).
What if multiple works by the same author are cited?
Include a shortened title of the work along with the author’s last name and page number. For example, (Smith, Art of Writing 123).
How should I format the works cited page?
Center the title “Works Cited” at the top of the page, and use a hanging indent for each entry. Alphabetize entries by the author’s last name.
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The APA 6 guide was developed in line with the American Psychological Association in 2013. Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
General Principles of APA 6 Formatting
Double-spacing throughout the paper.
Margins – 1″ (2.54 cm), while paper size should be 8.5″ x 11″
Times New Roman or Arial 12 pt. font (unless the instructions require a different font)
APA 6 papers contain running head(s) at the top of every page and page number. Page numbers are inserted flush right, while the paper’s title, written in UPPER CASE, is inserted flush left. Your title in the header should contain no more than 50 characters (including spaces and punctuation).
Papers written in APA 6 are divided into four sections:
Title Page
Abstract
Body
Reference List
Title Page
Running head: THE TITLE (with words’ Running head’ only on the title page)
All the following pages have a different header from the first page: THE TITLE
Title:
Your title should be inserted in the upper half of the first page.
You should not use more than 12 words for your title.
Use upper and lower case (avoid abbreviations and redundant words).
The title page should be double-spaced.
Insert the author’s name below the title.
Insert the educational institution below the author’s name.
Abstract
The abstract is written on a new page; this page should contain a page header (see above).
The word “Abstract” is centered on the new page. Do not use quotation marks, bold, italics, or any other formatting.
The text on the abstract page is NOT indented.
The abstract should contain only the most relevant information, such as research topic/thesis statement, research question(s), sample size/participants, research design/method, data analysis, results, and conclusions.
The abstract consists of a single paragraph (about 130-150 words) of double-spaced text.
If keywords are required, they are indented and written beneath the abstract paragraph. Do not forget to use italics for the word “Keywords.”
Headings
Level 1 heading should be Bold, Uppercase, and Lowercase
Level 2 should be Left-aligned, Bold, Uppercase, and Lowercase
Level 3 should be indented, with a bold lowercase heading with a period. Begin your text after the period.
Level 4 should be indented, bold, italicized, and lowercase heading with a period. Begin your text after the period.
Level 5 indented, italicized, lowercase heading with a period. When writing, begin your text after the period.
Reference List
The reference list is inserted at the end of your paper; any source you use must be included in the reference page and cited in the text.
Indent all lines after the first line in the entry (hanging indent); the lines should be indented one-half inch (1.27 cm) from the left margin of your paper.
Do not forget to invert authors’ names, such as last name and initials. Example: Cage, D. C.
If you have to cite more than seven authors, only the first six authors are listed, then an ellipsis is placed, and the last author’s name is listed after the ellipsis.
The reference list is always alphabetized by the first word in the reference entry (from A to Z).
When alphabetizing titles or group names as authors, go by the first significant word (disregard a, an, the, etc.)
If your reference has a group author, the name of the group can sometimes be abbreviated in the text—for example, the American Psychological Association can be abbreviated to APA. As with other abbreviations, spell out the name of the group upon first mention in the text and then provide the abbreviation.
If the name of the group first appears in parentheses in an in-text citation, put the abbreviation in brackets after it, followed by a comma and the year for the citation:
Example: The American Psychological Association (APA, 2011) suggested that parents talk to their children about family finances in age-appropriate ways.
Children should learn about family finances in age-appropriate ways (American Psychological Association [APA], 2011).
In the reference list entry, do not include the abbreviation for the group author. Instead, spell out the full name of the group.
Journal titles are always presented in full and capitalized:
Example: Archives of General Psychiatry
Do not alter the journal’s name:
Example: JAMA Psychiatry (NOT Jama Psychiatry)
APA 6 Reference Guide
Books Citation
One author
Drewett, P. (2012). Field archaeology: An introduction. London, England: UCL Press.
Note:
Locations in the U.S.: City, 2-letter State Abbreviation.
Locations outside the U.S.: City, Country.
Provide the name of the publisher after a colon, excluding Co. and Inc., which are not necessary for the
identification of the publisher. However, do not omit the words Books and Press.
Two authors
Greene, J., & Scott, D. (2004). Finding Sand Creek. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
Three to five authors
McNeil, A. J., Frey, R., & Embrechts, P. (2015). Quantitative risk management: Concepts, techniques, and tools.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Six or seven authors
Bixby, C., Nigel, E., Smith, K., Rodgers, G. A., Williams, H., & Robinson, J. (2005). Referencing and
Plagiarism: A complete guide. London, England: Sage Publications.
More than seven authors
Provide last names and initials for the first six authors of the work. Insert three ellipsis points after the sixth author’s name, followed by the last author’s name.
Mehrer, M., Flatman, J., Flemming, N., Baxter, J., Orser, C., Wescot, K., … Wescott, K. (2006). GIS and archaeological site location modeling. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
Corporate/organization author
When the author and the publisher are the same, use the word “Author” instead of the publisher’s name.
Ministry of Health. (2008). Future directions for eating disorders services in New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand: Author
Unknown author
Alluvial archaeology in Europe. (2009). New York, NY: Routledge.
Two or more works by the same author
Works by the same author are arranged chronologically by year of publication. The earliest years come first.
Malhotra, Y. (2012). Knowledge management and virtual organizations. Naperville, IL: SAGE.
Malhotra, Y. (2014). Managing organizations: An introduction to theory and practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Two or more works by the same author, same year
Works by the same author and with the same publication date are listed alphabetically by the title (disregarding articles). Add a, b, to the publication year to distinguish citations.
Gabarro, J. (2011a). Criminal justice organizations: Administration and management. Reston, VA: Routledge.
Gabarro, J. (2011b). Managing and organizations: An introduction to theory and practice. Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Edited book, no author
In a reference to an edited book with no author, move the editor’s name to the author position and follow it with the parenthetical abbreviation (Ed.) for one editor or (Eds.) for multiple editors.
Palenchar, M., & Greenwald, H. (Eds.). (2009). The management of organizations: Responsibility for performance. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Edited book with an author/authors
When citing an edited source, place the editor’s initials and last name immediately after the book’s title, followed by the parenthetical abbreviation (Ed.) for one editor or (Eds.) for multiple editors.
Example:
Calfee, M. (2011). Strategic issues management: A systems and human resources approach. K. V. Emory (Ed.). Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Author with a translator
In a reference to a translated book, place the name(s) of the translator(s) immediately after the book’s title, add the abbreviation Trans., and enclose it in parentheses.
If the book is republished, provide both publishing dates.
Leary, P. (2009). Metaphors in the history of psychology. (A. W. Burt & F. L. Kernberg, Trans.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1921).
Note:
In-text referencing of a republished source also includes both publishing dates. Example: Leary (1921/2009).
Different Editions
Include information about the edition in parentheses immediately after the title.
Example:
Shotton, M. L., & Schiraldi, G. (2016). The need for revision (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: Dover.
Chapter in an edited book
When citing a chapter in an edited book, do not invert the editors’ names and do not place them in the author’s position. The editors’ names are preceded by the word In and followed by the parenthetical abbreviation (Ed.) for one editor or (Eds.) for several editors.
Note: if an editorial board consists of more than three members, include the name of the lead editor and follow it by et al.
Example:
Wiener, P. (2013). Gender issues across the globe. In A. A. Krugman & F. D. Kempe (Eds.), Gender identity and gender politics (pp. 134–146). Frankfurt, Germany: Springer.
Multivolume work
Enclose information about volume number(s) in parentheses immediately after the book’s title.
Example:
Haybron, D. M. (2011). Perspectives on Piaget’s theory (Vols. 1–4). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Encyclopedia/dictionary
Graham, T. (Ed.). (2009). Encyclopedia of psychology: The great discoveries (Vols. 1–3). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Foreword, introduction, preface, or afterword
Provide the names of the authors of the book and follow the date of the book’s publishing with the word Foreword (or Introduction, Preface, or Afterword). Add the page numbers after the book’s title.
Example:
Brooks, G. (2013). Introduction. Consequences of government spending (pp. 3–11). Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang.
Online Books
Provide the version of your e-book.
Example:
Taubman, M. (2015). The psychoanalytic vision: The experiencing subject, transcendence and the therapeutic process [EBSCO NetLibrary version]. Retrieved from http://www.ebscohost.com
Electronic book
When citing an electronic book, keep in mind that it may be retrieved from a personal website, a self-publishing website, or provided in an audio form. If it must be purchased, write “Available from.”
Examples:
Kopf, R. (2013). Low blood pressure—Hypotension treated with homoeopathy and Schuessler salts (Homeopathic cell salts). Available from https://www.bookrix.com/_ebook-robert-kopf-low-blood-pressure-hypotension-treated-with-homeopathy-and-schuessler-salts-homeopathic/
Haggard, H. (2014). The brethren. Retrieved from https://www.bookrix.com/_ebook-h-rider-haggard-thebrethren-20/
Chapter in an online book or web document
Example:
National Research Center. (1997). How teachers teach: Specific methods. In Science, teaching reconsidered: A handbook (Chapter 2). Retrieved from https://www.nap.edu/read/5287/chapter/3
Williams, P. (2014). Emotions and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(5), 8–11.
Magazine article
Example:
Columbus, L. (2016, March 16). A roundup of cloud computing forecasts and market estimates. Forbes Magazine, 215, 1–3.
Newspaper article
Example:
Gellman, B., & Nakashima, E. (2013, July 25). U.S. spy agencies mounted 231 offensive cyber operations in 2011, documents show. Washington Post, pp. C3–C4.
Letter to the editor of a magazine
Example:
Jenkins, J. (2017, January). It’s time for the president to take responsibility for his words and actions [Letter to the editor]. The Washington Post, 233, 17.
Review article
Example:
Raab, J. (2014). Extending our knowledge on network governance [Review of the book Uniting Diverse Organizations: Managing goal-oriented advocacy networks, by A. Saz-Carranza]. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 24(2), 1–4.
Abstract
Example:
Schürch, R., Ratnieks, F. L., Samuelson, E. E., & Couvillon, M. J. (2016). Dancing to her own beat: Honey bee foragers communicate via individually calibrated waggle dances [abstract]. Journal of Experimental Biology, 219(9), 1287–1289.
Article in an online journal (DOI)
According to the 6th edition of the APA Style Guide, it is advisable to provide an article’s DOI if it is available. There are two formats of doi that you can choose from:
Baldwin, D. S., Anderson, I. M., & Nutt, D. J. (2014). Evidence-based pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder: A revision of the 2005 guidelines from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 28(5), 403–439. doi:10.1177/0269881114525674
Article in an online journal (without DOI)
Example:
Round, J. (2015). Apocatastasis: Redefining tropes of the Apocalypse in Neil Gaiman and Dave Mckean’s Signal to Noise. International Online Journal of Comic Art, 15. Retrieved from http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/26013/
Ascher, M. (2011). But I thought the earth belonged to the living [Review of the book Dead Hands: A Social History of Wills, trusts, and Inheritance Law, by L. M. Friedman]. Texas Law Review, 89(2), 1149–1177. Retrieved from http://www.texaslrev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Ascher-89-TLR-1149.pdf
Note:
Alternatively, provide a DOI instead of a link.
Citing Dissertations and Theses
Dissertation/thesis
Published dissertation/thesis available from a database service:
Examples:
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of dissertation or thesis (Doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis). Retrieved from the name of the database. (Accession or Order No.)
Patel, B. (2016). A computational pipeline to uncover genomic regulatory regions that modulate the WNT signaling pathway (Undergraduate Thesis). Retrieved from Stanford Digital Dissertations. (PTN 3495214)
Citing published dissertation/thesis available from an institutional repository:
Examples:
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of dissertation or thesis (Doctoral or Master’s thesis, University, city, country/state). Retrieved from http://xxxxx
Patel, B. (2016). A computational pipeline to uncover genomic regulatory regions that modulate the WNT signaling pathway (Undergraduate Thesis, Stanford University, Stanford, CA). Retrieved from https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/jz288sd3151
Citing Unpublished dissertation/thesis:
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis (Unpublished doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis). Name of Institution, Location.
Citing Learning Environment
Citing Online lecture notes/presentation slides
Examples:
Arnold, D. (2010). Functional analysis [PDF document]. Retrieved from http://wwwusers.math.umn.edu/~arnold/502.s97/functional.pdf
Pomije, B. (2011). Online shopping [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/pobr0702/online-shopping-presentation-10492184
Citing Web Sources
Page from website
If a document has more than one page, provide a URL that will be linked to the entry page of this document.
Example:
Preston, J. (2017). John Preston on the Thorpe affair. Retrieved from https://www.penguin.co.uk/articles/onwriting/why-i-write/2016/john-preston-on-the-thorpe-affair/
Page from a website with an unknown author
Example:
How sibling rivalry made Anne the ‘neglected’ Brontë. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.penguin.co.uk/articles/on-writing/times-and-life/2017/jan/how-sibling-rivalry-made-anne-theother-bronte/
Citing Blog Post
Example:
Cush, A. (2016, August 17). You’ll never guess who’s angry about CNN “deceptively” editing a video of Sylville Smith’s sister [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://gawker.com/youll-never-guess-whos-angry-about-cnndeceptively-ed-1785416442
Citing Video or film
You may include a Producer, Director, Sponsor, etc.
Example:
Glass, T. (Director). (2010). A Todd Glass Halloween: Animashups [Video file]. Retrieved from http://videopodcastnetwork.com/a-todd-glass-halloween/
Podcast/YouTube
Example:
Alcock, P. (2012, June 29). Electromagnetic levitation quadcopter [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pCON4zfMzjU
Personal communication
Personal communication is not included in the reference list. Instead, when citing information from an email, cite the source of information in parentheses.
Example:
(K. Dawson, personal communication, April 24, 2010).
Citing Governmental Sources
Government publication
Example:
United States Congress House Committee on Energy and Commerce. (2017). DOE for the 21st century: Science, environment, and national security missions (E&C Publication No. 114–119). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office.
APA 6 In-text citations
When citing references in a text using the APA format, focus on the author-date approach. This means that the author’s surname (without suffixes such as Dr. or Jr.) appears in the text, followed by the year of publication.
Direct quotations require the inclusion of the page number in addition to the authors’ names and years.
Example: (Leary, 2009, p. 137).
An author named in a signal phrase
APA format requires the use of the word and instead of the ampersand before the last author’s name when citing a work by multiple authors in the text.
Example: Greene and Kernis (2012) argued that every individual involved in the process of creation of software is responsible for its quality.
The author is not named in a signal phrase.
Example: The framework based on categorizing racial attributes does not consider numerous individual differences between ethnic groups (Holland, 2010).
A work by two authors
Example: The use of sterilization accounts for 3.2 percent of birth control methods in Christian communities (Purnell & Paulanka, 2016).
A work by three to five authors
List all authors the first time a work is cited in the text. However, in subsequent citations, only the first author’s name, followed by et al., along with the year of publication, should be placed.
Example: The limitations of the classification system preclude its use for the determination of specific health needs of ethnic minorities (Flatman, Flemming, & Drewett, 2009).
Example: Belonging to a racial group requires a differentiation between racial needs and those of the society at large (Flatman et al., 2009).
Six or more authors
Include only the name of the first author, followed by et al., along with the year of publication.
Example: Baxter et al. (2014) argued that statewide statistics do not reflect the real experiences of Muslims in the U.S.
Unknown author
When the source does not identify an author, cite it by the first few words of its title. The titles of books and periodicals have to be italicized, whereas titles of book chapters and articles must be placed inside quotation marks.
Example: Naturalism and the improvement of healthcare outcomes are the main principles of the provision of biomedicine in the U.S. (Biomedicine and Health Care, 2015).
Example: The healthcare services in Australia are based on the long-standing culture of nursing as well as national models of health and illness (“Health care approaches,” 2011).
Corporate Author
If the name of the group first appears in parentheses (as in the second example below), put the abbreviation in brackets after it, followed by a comma and the year for the citation:
Example: The American Psychological Association (APA, 2011) suggested that parents talk to their children about family finances in age-appropriate ways.
Example: Children should learn about family finances in age-appropriate ways (American Psychological Association [APA], 2011).
In the reference list entry, do not include the group author’s abbreviation. Instead, spell out the group’s full name.
Authors with the same last name
Include first initials followed by the last names in order to distinguish between authors with the same last name.
For example, The religious and spiritual beliefs of Arab American Muslims significantly influence their healthcare practices and health-seeking behaviors (M. Berndt, 2016; L. Berndt, 2016).
More than one work by the same author in the same year
Distinguish between works by the same author in the same year by including lowercase letters next to the year of publication in both in-text citations and reference list entries.
Example: Terminally ill patients find a source of strength in performing daily prayers and adhering to other religious duties described in their sacred texts such as the Bible and Quran (Robbins, 2011a).
Indirect sources
Provide the author of the source in a signal phrase and include a citation of the secondary source in parentheses. Note that only the secondary source has to be included in the reference list.
Example: Smith argues that “personalistic systems provide the most accurate representation of a patient’s identity” (as cited in Wescot, 2014, p. 213).
Citing sources without page numbers
When an electronic document has numbered paragraphs, use the abbreviation “para.” followed by the paragraph number (Hall, 2001, para. 5). If the paragraphs are not numbered and the document includes
headings, provide the appropriate heading, and specify the paragraph under that heading.
Example: Pinker and Smith (2013) went so far as to argue “that Chinese cultures condone the use of invasive health care procedures” (para. 11).
Example: According to Smith (1997) (Mind Over Matter section, 2018, para. 6)
FAQs
What’s the difference between APA 6th and 7th editions?
The 7th edition, released in 2019, introduced several changes, including simplified author guidelines (listing up to 20 authors in the reference list), updated guidelines for digital sources, increased flexibility in font choices, and a new format for student papers. However, many institutions still use the 6th edition, so always check which version is required.
How do I cite a source with no author?
When a source has no author, use the title of the work in place of the author’s name: In-text citation: (“Article Title”, 2020) Reference list: Article title. (Year). Publication Name. URL
Can I use first-person pronouns in APA style?
APA 6th Edition allows the use of first-person pronouns (I, we) in appropriate contexts, such as describing your research process or stating your position. However, use them sparingly and maintain a professional tone.
How do I cite multiple works by the same author in the same year?
When citing multiple works by the same author published in the same year, use lowercase letters (a, b, c) after the year to differentiate: In-text: (Smith, 2020a; Smith, 2020b) Reference list: Smith, A. (2020a). First article title… Smith, A. (2020b). Second article title…
How do I format an appendix in APA 6th Edition?
To format an appendix: 1) Start each appendix on a new page after your references 2) Label it “Appendix” (for a single appendix) or “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” etc. (for multiple appendices) 3) Center the label at the top of the page 4) On the next line, provide a descriptive title (centered, bold) 5) Include the appendix content below the title
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