Referencing is a crucial aspect of academic writing. It ensures that the original authors of the sources you use in your work are properly credited and helps readers verify the information. With numerous referencing styles available, it’s important to understand the specifics of each to apply them correctly in your papers. This guide covers the most common referencing styles students should know, including APA, MLA, Chicago, and more.
Understanding Referencing
Referencing involves acknowledging the sources of information and ideas that you incorporate into your academic work. Proper referencing is essential to avoid plagiarism, provide evidence for your arguments, and give credit to the original authors.
Importance of Referencing in Academic Writing
Referencing plays a vital role in academic writing for several reasons:
Credibility: Citing sources enhances the credibility of your work.
Verification: Readers can verify the information and further explore the topic.
Acknowledgement: It acknowledges the contributions of other researchers and avoids plagiarism.
Overview of Common Referencing Styles
Different academic disciplines prefer different referencing styles. Here is an overview of the most common ones:
APA Style
History and Development of APA Style
The American Psychological Association (APA) style was developed to help authors achieve clarity in their scholarly writing and to standardize the format of papers and citations.
General APA Guidelines
APA style requires double-spaced text, a title page, and a reference list. The paper should have 1-inch margins and be typed in a readable font, such as 12-point Times New Roman.
APA In-Text Citations
In-text citations in APA style follow the author-date format. For example: (Smith, 2020).
APA Reference List Format
The reference list should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author. Each entry should include the author’s name, publication year, title, and source. For example:
Smith, J. (2020). Title of the Book. Publisher.
MLA Style
History and Development of MLA Style
The Modern Language Association (MLA) style is widely used in the humanities, especially in writing on language and literature.
General MLA Guidelines
MLA style uses a Works Cited page and in-text citations with the author’s last name and page number. The paper should be double-spaced with 1-inch margins.
MLA In-Text Citations
In-text citations in MLA style include the author’s last name and the page number (Smith 23).
MLA Works Cited Format
Entries in the Works Cited list should be alphabetized by the author’s last name and include the author’s name, title, publisher, and publication year. For example:
Smith, John. Title of the Book. Publisher, 2020.
Chicago Style
History and Development of Chicago Style
The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) offers two systems: Notes and Bibliography and Author-Date. It is commonly used in history and other humanities disciplines.
General Chicago Guidelines
Chicago style allows for either the Notes and Bibliography system or the Author-Date system. Papers should have 1-inch margins and be double-spaced.
Chicago Notes and Bibliography System
This system uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end of the paper.
Chicago Author-Date System
The Author-Date system uses in-text citations with the author’s last name, publication year, and a reference list.
Harvard Style
History and Development of Harvard Style
Harvard referencing is commonly used in the UK and Australia, especially in the social and natural sciences.
General Harvard Guidelines
Harvard style requires in-text citations with the author’s last name, year of publication, and a reference list.
Harvard In-Text Citations
In-text citations include the author’s last name and year of publication (Smith, 2020).
Harvard Reference List Format
The reference list should be alphabetized by the author’s last name and include the author’s name, publication year, title, and source.
Vancouver Style
History and Development of Vancouver Style
Vancouver style is used in medical and scientific papers, particularly in publications by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE).
General Vancouver Guidelines
Vancouver style uses numbered citations in the text and a corresponding numbered reference list.
Vancouver In-Text Citations
In-text citations are indicated by numbers in parentheses or superscript: (1).
Vancouver Reference List Format
References are listed in the order they appear in the text, not alphabetically.
IEEE Style
History and Development of IEEE Style
The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style is used mainly in technical fields, particularly in engineering and computer science.
General IEEE Guidelines
The IEEE style uses numbered references in the text, with a corresponding list at the end of the document.
IEEE In-Text Citations
In-text citations are indicated by numbers in square brackets: [1].
IEEE Reference List Format
References are listed in numerical order.
Turabian Style
History and Development of Turabian Style
Turabian style, based on The Chicago Manual of Style, is designed for college students writing papers, theses, and dissertations.
General Turabian Guidelines
Turabian style allows for either the Notes and Bibliography or Author-Date citation methods.
Turabian Notes and Bibliography System
This system uses footnotes or endnotes and a bibliography.
Turabian Author-Date System
The Author-Date system uses in-text citations with the author’s last name, publication year, and a reference list.
CSE Style
History and Development of CSE Style
The Council of Science Editors (CSE) style is used in scientific papers, especially in biology.
General CSE Guidelines
CSE style uses three systems: Name-Year, Citation-Sequence, and Citation-Name.
CSE In-Text Citations
In the Name-Year system, in-text citations include the author’s last name and year of publication (Smith 2020).
CSE Reference List Format
The reference list format varies depending on the system used.
ASA Style
History and Development of ASA Style
The American Sociological Association (ASA) style is used mainly in sociology.
General ASA Guidelines
ASA style uses in-text citations with the author’s last name, year of publication, and a reference list.
ASA In-Text Citations
In-text citations include the author’s last name and year of publication (Smith 2020).
ASA Reference List Format
References should be alphabetized by the author’s last name and include the author’s name, publication year, title, and source.
Bluebook Style
History and Development of Bluebook Style
The Bluebook style is used primarily in legal documents and law reviews.
General Bluebook Guidelines
Bluebook style uses footnotes for citations and a reference list for longer works.
Bluebook In-Text Citations
Citations are provided in footnotes, often with detailed information.
Bluebook Reference List Format
The reference list includes detailed citations for all referenced works.
Oxford Style
History and Development of Oxford Style
Oxford style, also known as the documentary-note style, is used in the humanities, particularly in history.
General Oxford Guidelines
Oxford style uses footnotes or endnotes for citations and a bibliography.
Oxford In-Text Citations
Citations are indicated by superscript numbers in the text, with corresponding footnotes or endnotes.
Oxford Reference List Format
The bibliography is alphabetized by the author’s last name and includes full publication details.
Differences Between Referencing Styles
Different referencing styles vary in their use of in-text citations, reference list formats, and specific guidelines. Understanding these differences is essential for correctly applying the appropriate style.
Choosing the Right Referencing Style for Your Paper
Selecting the right referencing style depends on your field of study, the requirements of your instructor, and the conventions of the academic discipline.
Common Mistakes in Referencing and How to Avoid Them
Common mistakes in referencing include incorrect citation formats, missing citations, and inconsistent use of styles. To avoid these errors, carefully follow the guidelines of the chosen style and double-check your references.
Tools and Resources for Managing References
Several tools and resources can help manage references, including:
How do I choose the right referencing style for my paper?
Choosing the right referencing style depends on your field of study and the requirements of your instructor. Common styles include APA, MLA, and Chicago.
What is the difference between in-text citations and a reference list?
In-text citations are brief references within the text, while the reference list provides detailed information about all the sources cited in the paper.
Can I use multiple referencing styles in one paper?
It’s generally not recommended to mix referencing styles in one paper. Consistency is key to maintaining clarity and credibility.
What should I do if I can’t find the publication date for a source?
If the publication date is unavailable, use “n.d.” (no date) in place of the year.
How do I cite a source with multiple authors?
The format for citing multiple authors varies by style. In APA, list all authors the first time, and for subsequent citations, use “et al.” after the first author’s name if there are more than two authors.
Can I use online citation generators for referencing?
Yes, online citation generators can be helpful, but always double-check their accuracy and ensure they follow the specific guidelines of your chosen style.
Conclusion
Understanding and correctly applying referencing styles is essential for academic writing. By familiarizing yourself with the guidelines of various styles, such as APA, MLA, Chicago, and others, you can ensure your work is credible, properly cited, and free from plagiarism. Use this guide to navigate the complexities of referencing and excel in your academic endeavors.
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The OSCOLA Referencing Style (Oxford University Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities) is a citation system specifically designed for legal scholarship. The OSCOLA Referencing Style provides a standardized method for referencing legal sources and authorities, ensuring clarity, precision, and consistency in legal writing. The OSCOLA style is widely used in legal documents, academic papers, and scholarly articles in the UK and other jurisdictions. The key aspects of the OSCOLA Referencing Style are shown in the table below.
Cases
References include the case name, year, volume number, report series, and page number.
Footnotes
The primary citation method is where references are provided in footnotes rather than in-text citations.
Bibliography
Organized at the end of the document, listing all sources cited, separated into categories such as cases, legislation, and secondary sources.
Books
Bibliographic references include the author’s name, title in italics, edition (if not the first), publisher, and year of publication.
Articles
The primary citation method is where references are provided in footnotes rather than in-text citations.
Legislation
Citations for statutes and statutory instruments include the title, year, and chapter number or other identifying details.
Key Aspects of the OSCOLA Referencing Style
OSCOLA 4th Edition: What’s New?
The 4th edition of OSCOLA introduced several key changes to improve usability and address evolving citation needs in the digital age. Here’s a quick overview of the major updates:
Feature
Change in 4th Edition
Online Sources
Expanded guidelines for citing digital resources
Neutral Citations
Increased emphasis on using neutral citations for cases
Abbreviations
Updated list of standard abbreviations
Foreign Materials
Enhanced guidance on citing international sources
Change in OSCOLA4th Edition
These changes reflect the growing importance of online legal resources and the internationalization of legal scholarship.
General Principles of Formatting
Footnotes: OSCOLA uses footnotes for citations, not in-text parenthetical references.
Superscript Numbers: Place footnote markers after punctuation marks.
The recommended font is Arial 12 (unless other instructions are given).
Since OSCOLA is most commonly employed for citing legal sources, it lacks the specific requirements of a full-fledged style when it comes to the design of a title page and other details. Using footnotes to cite legal documents and files is crucial.
A footnote marker may follow a significant word or phrase.
Superscript numbers that denote footnotes are typically positioned at the conclusion of a sentence.
A superscript number is followed by a full stop at the conclusion of a sentence.
Single quotation marks are employed in place of double quotation marks.
Semicolons are employed to distinguish between multiple citations within a single footnote.
OSCOLA Footnote Citation Guide
Where the same source is referred to again successively on the same page following the OSCOLA referencing style, one is advised to avoid giving a second full citation so that it remains brief and not needlessly repetitive. Instead, it becomes necessary to use a shortened form or other suitable identifier to indicate that it is the same source.
When a later reference is made to a source that has already been cited, it is possible to provide a short identifier, such as the name of the author and a part of the title indicating it is the same source. The identifier should then be followed by a cross-citation in brackets to the original footnote number where the full citation is found.
In the case where the next footnote is the same source as a full citation just before it, then ‘ibid’ (short for ‘ibidem,’ which translates to ‘in the same place’) should be used to indicate that it is the same reference. The use of ‘ibid’ in this way will ease the citation and also avoid unnecessary repetition while keeping the meaning intact.
Example:
Qun Zhang, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3 (10) IJCRB 599.
Ibid 600.
Reference List
Secondary sources should be placed on a separate sheet following the main content of the paper.
Sources must be arranged in alphabetical order and should correspond to the footnotes through the use of a corresponding superscript number in the document.
If multiple sources of the same author are used, they are to be listed in chronological order with 2 em-dash replacing the author’s name.
Example:
Fromm E, The Fear of Freedom (Routledge & Kegan Paul 1942)
— — The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books 1987)
When citing multiple sources from the same author and year, it is necessary to include letter designations after the year of publication (e.g., 2014a, 2014b).
The majority of the paper should be formatted with double spacing, except for the reference list where single spacing is employed, with an additional line to separate each entry.
Examples of OSCOLA Primary Sources
OSCOLA Referencing of Cases from England and Wales
Cases with neutral citations
In the OSCOLA reference style, legal cases should be cited with the case name in italics, followed by the year in square brackets or round brackets depending on whether the year is essential for identifying the volume, the court abbreviation, the case number, and the first page of the report.
Note:
When the case is first mentioned in the text or footnotes, give the full name. After that, it can be shortened.
1. R v R [1991] UKHL 12, [1992] 1 AC 599
2.R (n 14)
A reference to a particular paragraph of a judgment or page of a report (pinpoint) may be stated at the end. Reference to a paragraph is written in square brackets.
3.Smith v Jones [2010] EWCA Civ 143, [2010] 1 WLR 1234 [para 25]–[para 40]
Cases without neutral citations
In the OSCOLA reference style, legal cases without neutral citations should be cited with the case name in italics, followed by the year in square brackets or round brackets (depending on whether the year is essential for identifying the volume), the volume number, the report abbreviation, the first page of the report, and the court in parentheses.
Example:
4. Smith v Brown [2015] UKSC 25, [2015] 2 WLR 789 (SC)
5.Smith (n 11)
Law reports
6.Jones v Smith [2005] CLY 421 (QB)
7.Robinson v Brown [2012] CLY 888 (Ch)
Cases from Scotland
In the OSCOLA reference style for Scottish cases, citations should include the case name in italics, followed by the year in round brackets, the volume number, the report abbreviation, and the first-page number, with no punctuation other than commas separating the page numbers.
For example, a case citation would look like this:
8.Durham v Hislop (1852) 4 D 1188
9.Adams v Advocate General 2023 SC 171 (OH)
Cases from Northern Ireland
10.Smith v Jones [2008] NI 45
UK Legislation
Statutes
11. Sexual Offences Act 2003, s 1(1)(c).
12. Criminal Attempts Act 1981, ss 1(1) and 4(3). 25 17.
Bills
Title HC Bill (session) [number] OR Title HL Bill (session) number
13. Abortion HC Bill (2017-2019) [2].
UK Acts of Parliament
Title year of adoption.
14. Parliament Act 2019.
Parts of UK acts
A short title, year of adoption, session (subsection number) (paragraph).
15. Human Rights Act 1998, s 15(1)(b).
Statutory Instruments, or Sis
Title year/number.
16. Cremation (England and Wales) Regulations 2008, SI 2008/2841.
OSCOLA Referencing of Devolved UK legislatures
Scottish Parliament
Act title asp number (Act of the Scottish Parliament).
17. Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2016 (asp 1).
Scottish SSIs (statutory instruments)
Title with a particular year SSI number.
18. The Letting Agent Registration (Scotland) Regulations 2016, SSI 2016/432.
Northern Ireland Assembly Acts
Title mentioning Northern Ireland year.
19. Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 2013.
Northern Irish Statutory Rules
Title of the Rule, including Northern Ireland year, Statutory Rule number.
20. The Local Government (Specified Bodies) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2012, SR 2012/8.
Welsh legislation
As a rule, specific measures are cited, which may be passed by the Welsh government. In footnotes, they are abbreviated as nawm. Such a citation includes:
Title of the measure year (number).
21. Domestic Fire Safety (Wales) Measure 2011 (nawm 3).
Welsh Statutory Instruments
Order title and year Welsh Statutory Instrument year/Instrument’s number in brackets.
22. The Independent Health Care (Fees) (Wales) Regulations Order 2011 Welsh Statutory Instrument 2011/106 (W. 25).
European Union Legislative Documents
This type of official documentation includes legislation, directives, regulations, and decisions.
European Union Legislation
Title of legislation [year] series mentioned in Official Journal (OJ) issue/first page.
23. Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community [2007] OJ C 306/01.
Directives, Regulations, and Decisions
Type of legislation number title [year] L series in the Official Journal issue/first page.
European Union Directives:24. Council Directive 2001/29/EC on the harmonization of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society [2001] OJ L 167/10.
European Union Regulations:25. Council Regulation (EU) 1984/2003 introducing a system for the statistical monitoring of trade in bluefin tuna, swordfish and big eye tuna within the Community [2003] OJ L 295/1.
European Union Commission Decisions 26. Alcatel/Telettra (Case No IV/M.042) Commission Decision [1991] OJ L 122/48.
Note:
Commission decisions should be cited in the same way as cases.
European Court of Justice (ECJ) and General Court (GC) Judgements
Prefix (“Case C-” for ECJ or “Case T-” for GC) number indicating the case registration Case Name [year] report citation.
27. Case C-557/12 Kone AG v OBB-Infrastruktur [2014] C.M.L.R. 5.
OSCOLA Referencing of International Legislative Resources
United Nations laws
Author Title (date) number:
28. UNGA Res 67/97 (26 August 2008) A/63/332.
Treaties
Title (date of adoption) publication mentioning (Short name) number of the article:
29. Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (adopted 10 June 1958, entered into force 7 June 1959) 330 UNTS 4739 (Foreign Arbitral Awards Convention) art 3.
International Court of Justice (ICJ) documents
Case Title [year] Court’s Report Citation/<link> accessed DD Month YYYY
30. Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia) [2013] ICJ Judgement <https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/155> accessed 24 December 2018.
Examples of OSCOLA Secondary Sources
OSCOLA Referencing of Books
One author
Author, Title (additional information, edition, publisher year)
Sepetys R, Salt to the Sea (Philomel Books 2016)
Footnote citation:
1. Ruta Sepetys, Salt to the Sea (Philomel Books 2016)
Two or three authors
Bohm A and Chaudri D, Securing Australia’s Future: An Analysis of the International Education Markets in India (IDP Education Australia 2000)
Footnote citation:
1. Andrew Bohm and Dean Chaudri, Securing Australia’s Future: An Analysis of the International Education Markets in India (IDP Education Australia 2000) 33–55
Four or more authors
Bell M and others, Universities Online: A Survey of Online Education and Services in Australia (Department of Education, Science and Training 2002)
Footnote citation:
1. Michael Bell and others, Universities Online: A Survey of Online Education and Services in Australia (Department of Education, Science, and Training 2002) 45
Books with editors or translators
Baker R (ed), The Norton Book of Light Verse (W. W. Norton 1986)
Footnote citation:
1. Russell Baker (ed), The Norton Book of Light Verse (W. W. Norton 1986) 105
Note:
For one editor, use ed; for two and more – eds
In a case with a translator, use tr / trs instead of ed/eds
Authors plus editors or translators
Churchill W, The Literary Works of Winston Churchill (Samuel Jackson ed, The Limited Editions Club 1963)
Footnote citation:
1. Winston Churchill, The Literary Works of Winston Churchill (Samuel Jackson ed, The Limited Editions Club 1963) 12
Multiple works by the same author
Using multiple works by the same author poses no challenge, as all are to be cited in footnotes at the bottom of the page.
Fromm E, The Fear of Freedom (Routledge & Kegan Paul 1942)
—. The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (Penguin Books 1987)
Footnote citation:
1. Erich Fromm, The Fear of Freedom (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1942) 33
2. Erich Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1987) 42
Different editions
Kremer J and Moran A, Pure Sport: Practical Sport Psychology (2nd edn, Routledge 2013)
Footnote citation:
1. John Kremer and Aidan Moran, Pure Sport: Practical Sports Psychology (2nd edn, Routledge 2013) 104
Encyclopedia or dictionary
‘Christianity’, The New Encyclopedia Britannica (15th edn, 2018) <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/Church-tradition> accessed 24 December 2018
Footnote citation:
1.‘Christianity’, The New Encyclopedia Britannica (15th edn, 2018) <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/Church-tradition> accessed 24 December 2018
Note:
State either page number(s) or link and access date depending on whether the source is published or found online.
Chapter in an edited book
Higgs M, ‘Change and Its Leadership: The Role of Positive Emotions’ in P. Alex Linley, Susan Harrington, and Nicola Garcea (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work (Oxford University Press 2013) 67–94
Footnote citation:
1. Malcolm Higgs, ‘Change and Its Leadership: The Role of Positive Emotions’ in P. Alex Linley, Susan Harrington, and Nicola Garcea (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work (Oxford University Press 2013) 67–94
OSCOLA Referencing of Articles in Periodicals
Journal article
Author, ‘Title’ [year] Journal Name or Abbreviation first page of article
Author, ‘Title’ (year) volume(number) Journal Name or Abbreviation first page of article
Zhang Q and others, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3(10) Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 599
Footnote citation:
1. Qun Zhang and others, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3(10) Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 599
Online Journals
The OSCOLA referencing of online journals is similar to that of journal articles, but in this case, <URL> or <doi>, and access dates are
given.
Zhang Q and others, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3(10) Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 599 <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6303/744cf0edb78ac8512ecb660b19167b607ddb.pdf> accessed 24 December 2018
Footnote citation:
1. Qun Zhang and others, ‘Lean Six Sigma: A Literature Review’ (2012) 3(10) Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 599 <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6303/744cf0edb78ac8512ecb660b19167b607ddb.pdf> accessed 24 December 2018
Newspaper Articles
Gellman B and Nakashima E, ‘US spy agencies mounted 231 offensive cyber-operations in 2011, documents show’ Washington Post (Washington, 13 August 2013) C3.
Footnote citation:
1. Barton Gellman and Ellen Nakashima, ‘US spy agencies mounted 231 offensive cyber-operations in 2011, documents show’ Washington Post (Washington, 13 August 2013) C3
OSCOLA Referencing of Web Sources
Websites and Blogs
Daniels C, ‘Pumpkin Pie’ (Easy Recipes, 25 April 2016) <www.easyrecipes.com/04/25/2016/pumpkinpie> accessed 24 December 2018
Footnote citation:
1. Christie Daniels, ‘Pumpkin Pie’ (Easy Recipes, 25 April 2016) <www.easyrecipes.com/04/25/2016/pumpkin-pie> accessed 24 December 2018
Citing Dissertations and Theses
Thesis or dissertation
Rutz CL, ‘King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues’ (PhD diss., University of Chicago 2013)
Footnote citation:
1. Cynthia Lillian Rutz, ‘King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues’ (PhD diss., University of Chicago 2013) 99–100
Command Papers
Author, Paper Title (number, year).
Prime Minister’s Office and Cabinet Office, Modernising government (Cm 4310, 1999).
Footnote citation:
1. Prime Minister’s Office and Cabinet Office, Modernising government (Cm 4310, 1999) para 15.
Hansard (Official Debate and Speech Records)
House abbreviation Deb date, volume, column.
HL Deb 15 March 2005, vol 670, col 1234
Suffix WS for citing a written statement:
HC Deb 15 April 2013, vol 561, col 18WS.
Prefix WA for citing a written answer:
HL Deb 21 May 2013, vol 745, col WA39.
Suffix WH for citing a debate in Westminster Hall:
HC Deb 29 January 2013, vol 557, cols 179-205WH.
Series numbers for old records:
HC Deb (4th series) 18 July 1900, vol 86, col 341.
Hansard of Standing Committee:
SC Deb (D) 25 May 2004, col 40.
Note:
Since 2014, column references have not been used. More information may be found on the official website https://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/written-questions-answersstatements/written-questions-answers/. Today, a possible relevant citation may look as follows:
HC 10 July 2018, PQ 162501.
Law Commission Reports and Consultation Papers
Law Commission, Report, or Paper Title (number, year).
Law Commission, The 13th Programme of Law Reform (Law Com No 377, 2017).
Footnote citation:
1. Law Commission, The 13th Programme of Law Reform (Law Com No 377, 2017).
2. Law Com No 377.
Interpersonal Communications
Unpublished Letters or Emails
Communication Form from Author to Recipient (DD Month YYYY)
Letter from S Alexander to Gibson WR (1 November 1911).
Interviews
Interviewee’s Name, Position, Educational Institution (if necessary), (Place of the interview date)
Interview with Marilyn Charlton, Professor of Social Science, Swansea University (Swansea 17 July 2017)
FAQs
How do I cite a website in OSCOLA format?
Use the format: Author, ‘Title’ (Website, Date) <URL> accessed [Date]. For example: John Smith, ‘Legal Ethics in the Digital Age’ (Law Blog, 1 June 2023) https://www.lawblog.com/ethics accessed 15 July 2023
What’s the difference between a footnote and a bibliography entry in OSCOLA?
Footnotes use commas as separators and end with a full stop. Bibliography entries use the same information but with different punctuation and a hanging indent: Footnote: 1 HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (3rd ed, Oxford University Press 2012). Bibliography: Hart, HLA, The Concept of Law (3rd ed, Oxford University Press 2012)
How do I use ‘ibid’ in OSCOLA referencing?
Use ‘ibid’ when referring to the same source as in the immediately preceding footnote. If the page number is different, add it after ‘ibid’: 1 Richard Posner, How Judges Think (Harvard University Press 2008) 100. 2 ibid 102.
How should I cite a case with a neutral citation?
Use the neutral citation followed by the law report citation: Corr v IBC Vehicles Ltd [2008] UKHL 13, [2008] 1 AC 884
How do I cite an EU directive in OSCOLA?
Use this format: Directive 2019/790/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on copyright and related rights in the Digital Single Market and amending Directives 96/9/EC and 2001/29/EC [2019] OJ L130/92
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The Harvard format, also known as the Harvard referencing style, is a system for citing sources in academic writing. It is characterized by using author-date in-text citations and a comprehensive reference list at the end of the document. This system ensures that readers can easily locate the sources referenced within the text. This guide is developed in line with the book Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2016) Cite Them Right: The Essential Referencing Guide. 10th ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
General Principles of Formatting
The following guidelines should be followed when using the Harvard format:
Arial 12 pt. font (unless the instructions require a different font)
1” (2.54 cm) margins from all sides (This applies to APA, MLA, and Chicago Style)
Alphabetical order of sources at the end of a document according to the author’s surname or title (if no author). If you have cited more than one item by the same author, they should be listed chronologically (earliest first) and by letter (1996a 1996b) if more than one item has been published in the same year.
No indentation is required on the reference list on a Harvard-formatted paper.
Sentence case capitalization for book/article/chapter titles
Single quotation marks in the reference list
Title Page
On the title page of a Harvard-styled paper, the following guidelines should be followed:
Your title should be inserted in the upper half of the first page.
You should not use more than 12 words for your title
Use upper and lower case (avoid abbreviations and redundant words).
The title page should be double-spaced.
Insert the author’s name below the title.
Insert the educational institution below the author’s name.
In the header of the Harvard-style paper, you must include your surname and the page number, just like in MLA format.
Headings
As a rule, two types of subheadings are used when formatting a paper at Harvard:
Level 1 – Centered, Capitalized, Not Bold, Not Italicized
Level 2 – Flush Left, Italicized, Capitalized, Not Bold
Reference List Rules
The Harvard reference list is inserted at the end of your paper; any source that you use needs to be included in the reference page and cited in the text.
Do not forget to invert authors’ names, such as last name and initials. Example: Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M..
The reference list is always alphabetized by the first word in the reference entry (from A to Z).
When alphabetizing titles or group names as authors, go by the first significant word (disregard a, an, the)
In the titles of your sources (except journal, magazine, and database titles), use sentence case capitalization.
Italicization is applied to titles of books and periodical journals.
Single quotation marks are used for the titles of articles and book chapters.
Harvard referencing style of books follows the following general format.
Last Name, Initials. (Publication Date) Title of book. City: Publisher.
Single author
Sebold, A. (2002) The Lovely Bones. London: Hachette.
Two or three authors
Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M. (2006) New literacies: everyday practices and classroom learning. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Four or more authors
Evans, J. et al. (2003) Equal subjects, unequal rights: Indigenous peoples in British settler societies. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Note:
List only the first author, while others are represented by “et al.”
Corporate Author
Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia and New Zealand (2016) AASB 128 investments in associates and joint ventures. Sydney: Pearson Education.
Unknown author
The Oxford dictionary of abbreviations (1998) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Multiple works by the same author
King, S. (2008) The Shining. New York, NY: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
King, S. (2010) Insomnia. London: Hachette.
Note:
On the Reference list, works by the same author are arranged by year of publication, with the earliest work first.
Multiple works published in the same year by the same author
King, S. (2008a) The shining. New York, NY: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
King, S. (2008b) The stand. New York, NY: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
Note:
Both in the in-text citations and on the Reference list, works published in the same year by the same author should be distinguished by adding an alphabetical designator to the publication date.
Different editions
Feldman, R. (2011) Understanding psychology. 10th in. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Note:
When using any edition of the book other than the first one, use the publication date of that particular edition and make sure to add the edition number to the entry on the Reference list.
Author with an editor
Howells, W. D. (1968) Their wedding journey. Edited by John K. Reeves. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Note:
Write editor(s) full first name(s) followed by last name.
Editor with no author
Baker, R. (ed.) (1986) The Norton Book of Light Verse. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Note:
Use either (ed.) for one editor or (eds.) for two or more.
Translated book
Homer (1997) The Odyssey. Translated by R. Fagles. Introduction and notes by B. Knox. London: Penguin Books.
Note:
Make sure to mention all contributors, such as translators, editors, co-authors, or illustrators
if mentioned on the book’s cover page.
Multi-volume book
Ersoy, A., Górny, M. and Kechriotis, V. (2010) Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and
Southeast Europe 1770–1945: Texts and Commentaries (3 vols.). Budapest: Central European University Press.
If you cite a separate volume, use the following format:
Ersoy, A., Górny, M. and Kechriotis, V. (2010) Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe 1770–1945: Texts and Commentaries. Part 1: Modernism: The Creation of Nation-States. Budapest: Central European University Press.
Collected works
Jung, C.G. (1989–1995) Gesammelte werke (24 vols). Olten: Walter Verlag.
Chapter in an edited book
Johnson, J.L. and Repta, R. (2012) ‘Sex and gender: beyond the binaries’, in Oliffe, J.L. and Greaves, L.J. (eds.) Designing and conducting gender, sex, and health research. Los Angeles: SAGE Publishing, pp. 17–37.
Note:
Use either (ed.) for one editor or (eds.) for two or more.
Remember to include chapter page numbers at the end of the entry.
Salinger, J.D. (1951) Catcher in the Rye. Available at:
09&FileName=Catcher%20In%20The%20Rye.pdf (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Sacred Texts Referencing
The Bible
When citing the bible in the Harvard referencing style, the following format is followed:
Book of the Bible. (Year) Title of the Bible, Edition (if applicable). Publisher.
Example:
Matthew 5: 3–12, Holy Bible. New International Edition.
Note:
Mention the Book of the Bible first (not in italics), then chapter: verse, ‘Holy Bible.” (not in Italics) and the version of the Bible you have read.
Do not include the place of publication or publisher.
The Torah
Torah. Shernot 3: 14.
Note:
Mention “Torah.” first (not in italics), then the book, followed by the chapter: verse.
The Qur’an
Qur’an 20: 24 (2010) Translated by Abdel Haleem, M.A.S. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Note:
Mention “Qur’an” first (not in italics), then Surah or chapter: verse, year of publication, translator, and place of publication: publisher.
Articles in Periodicals Referencing
Journal article
The format that the Harvard referencing style follows when citing a journal article is as follows:
Author(s) Last Name, First Initial(s). (Year) ‘Title of the article,’ Title of the Journal, Volume(Issue), Page numbers.
Examples:
Smith, J. (2020) ‘The impact of social media on mental health’, Journal of Psychology, 12(3), pp. 45-67.
Breslau, J. and Engel, C. (2016) ‘Information and communication technologies in behavioral health: a literature review with recommendations for the airforce’, RAND Health Quarterly, 5(4), pp. 17-18.
Note:
If a journal has no issue, it should be omitted.
If an article is printed on one page, “p.” should be used instead of “pp.”
If there is a colon in the title of an article, do not capitalize the subtitle.
Capitalize all the words except conjunctions and articles only in the journal-titles.
Journal article (no author)
‘Perioperative blood salvage’ (2006) Vox Sanguinis, 91(2), pp. 185-192.
Online journal article with doi
Williams, J. (2000) ‘Tools for achieving sustainable housing strategies in rural Gloucestershire’, Planning Practice & Research, 15(3), pp.155–174. doi: 10.1080/02697450020000131
Online journal article without doi
Springborn, M. (2015) ‘Accounting for behavioral responses during a flu epidemic using home television viewing’, BMC Infectious Diseases, 15(21). Available at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2334/15/21 (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Magazine article in print
Biello, D. (2011) ‘Coal fires burning bright,’ Scientific American, 304(March), p. 14.
Note:
Enter month(s) in brackets in the issue number field.
Online magazine article
Rosner, H. (2018) ‘Palm oil is unavoidable. Can it be sustainable?’, National Geographic, (December). Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/12/palm-oil-products[1]borneo-africa-south-america-environment-impact/ (Accessed: 4 December 2018).
Newspaper article in print
O’Sallivan, J. (2016) ‘Sanders, Clinton fight on credentials’, The Boston Globe, 4 February, p. 3.
Note:
Make sure that you add a full publication date (year, day, and month) with no shortenings. Do not forget that it should be separated by the article and newspaper titles.
Capitalize all words except conjunctions and articles only for the name of a newspaper.
When no author is given, the title of the newspaper becomes the author.
Online newspaper/magazine article
Baker, P. and Stolberg, S.G. (2018) ‘Bush’s coffin arrives at the capitol, where the former President will lie in state’, The New York Times: Politics, 3 December. Available at:
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/03/us/politics/trump-george-bush-capitol.html?action=click&module=Top%20Stories&pgtype=Homepage (Accessed: 4 December 2018).
Note:
When referencing a section of a newspaper where page numbers may be the same as in the main part of the paper or absent, mention the section (e.g., Newspaper: Section).
Conferences Referencing
Full conference proceedings
Gretzel, U., Law, R. and Fuchs, M. (eds.) (2010) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism. Lugano, Switzerland, 10-12 February. Vienna: Springer.
Paper from a published conference proceedings
Tran, C.K., Tseng, C.D. and Lee, T.F. (2016) ‘Improving the face recognition accuracy under varying illumination conditions for local binary patterns and local ternary patterns based on Weber-Face and singular value decomposition’, 3rd International Conference on Green Technology and Sustainable Development (GTSD) conference proceedings. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 24-25 November. Danvers: Conference Publishing Services, pp. 5-9.
Note:
Make sure to include the location and date of the conference, followed by the place of publication and publisher.
If an article is printed on one page, “p.” should be used instead of “pp.”
Paper from conference proceedings available online
Mendes, L. and Romão, T. (2011) ‘Children as teachers’, Proceedings of the 8th international conference on advances in computer entertainment technology, Lisbon, Portugal, 8–11 November. doi: 10.1145/2071423.2071438
Smith, W.B. (2012) Data structures and principles of programming. PhD thesis. University of Calgary.
Note:
Make sure to include the degree statement and degree awarding body (for example, “PhD thesis. the University of Calgary.”)
Online dissertation/thesis
Deines, T. (2007) Global warming coverage in the media: trends in a Mexico City newspaper. PhD Thesis. Kansas State University. Available at: http://krex.k[1]state. edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2097/497/TinaDeines2007.pdf?sequence=4 (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Note:
If the thesis is available online, provide a current link and fill in the date that you last accessed the document.
Web Sources Referencing in Harvard Referencing Style
Document on World Wide Web
When citing a document on a website in Harvard referencing style, you should include the author’s name, the year of publication, the title of the document, and the URL where the document is available along with the date you accessed it.
Example:
Folkman, J. (2013) Top 9 leadership behaviors that drive employee commitment. Available at: http://zengerfolkman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/ZFA-9-Behaviors.pdf (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Note:
Be sure not to use quotation marks for the title of a page but make it italicized.
Document on World Wide Web (no author)
Seven Steps for effective leadership development (2012) Available at: http://www.oracle.com/us/media1/steps-effective-leadership-dev-1657106.pdf (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Web page with neither author nor title
https://www.brookes.ac.uk (2014) (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Web page with neither author, title, nor date
https://www.brookes.ac.uk (no date) (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Image on World Wide Web
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (2016) Available at: https://fthmb.tqn.com/oYE4xPDfBJJLBn8LcdE[1]6rz6Gng=/768×0/filters:no_upscale () /about/hierarchy-of-needs-56a791433df78cf772972cac.png (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Blog
Witt, D. (2017) ‘When facing pressure, don’t just try to survive: learn to thrive’. Weblog, 25 January. (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Note:
Be sure to add the entire date when the blog post was published.
Facebook
Tynemouth outdoor pool (2012) [Facebook] 29 August. Available at: http://www.facebook.com/ (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Twitter
Fry, S. (2012) [Twitter] 13 January. Available at: http://twitter.com/stephenfry (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Computer programs
TechSmith Corporation (2012) Camtasia Studio (Version 3) [Computer program]. Available at: http://techsmith.com/download.html (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Films and video recordings
Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004) Directed by Michael Moore [Film]. Santa Monica, Calif: Lions Gate Films.
Note:
Add either [Film] or video record medium in square brackets (for example, [DVD], [Blu-ray])
The Apprentice (2012) BBC One Television, 23 June.
‘Asylum of the Daleks’ (2012) Doctor Who, Series 33, episode 1. BBC One Television, 1 September.
Note:
If an episode is cited, enter the title first in single quotes.
Grand Designs (2011) Channel 4 Television, 28 September. Available at: http://www.channel4.com/programmes/grand-designs/episode-guide/series-7/episode-30 (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Note:
If you cite a TV program available online, make sure to provide a link and state the date of access.
Newspaper interview
Riley, B. (2008) ‘The life of Riley’. Interview with Bridget Riley. Interview by Jonathan Jones for The Guardian, 5 July.
Television interview
Blair, A. (2003). Interview with A. Blair. Interview by Jeremy Paxman for Newsnight, BBC Two
Television, 2 February.
Interview published on the internet
Obama, B. (2008). Interviewed by Terry Moran for ABC News, 19 March. Available at: http://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/Vote2008/Story?id=4480133 (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Press releases/announcements
Google Inc. (2012) Google Maps heads north … way north [Press release]. 23 August. Available at: http://www.google.com/intl/en/press (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Learning Environment Referencing
Lectures and course materials
When referencing lecture notes and course resources in the Harvard style, it is important to include key details such as the lecturer’s name, year, the title of the lecture or resource, course title, institution, and URL (if available online).
The following is an example of how lecture notes and course materials can be cited in the Harvard referencing style:
Stellar, V. (2016) ‘Introduction to Java Week 5 Lecture’. MIT6_092IAP10: Access control, class scope, packages, Java API. Available at: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and[1]computer-science/6-092-introduction-to-programming-in-java-january-iap-2010/download[1]course-materials/ (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Note:
Module code and title are to be separated by a colon and written in Italics.
PowerPoint presentations
‘Module 1: The Accounting’ (2012) [PowerPoint presentation]. ACC5203. Available at:
http://usqstudydesk.usq.edu.au (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Note:
Add [PowerPoint presentation] as a supplement after the title
If there is no author, put the title in the first place.
Messages from course discussion boards
Thomas, D. (2008) ‘Word count and referencing style.’ Frequently Asked Questions discussion board, in PHYS 2011: Housing Studies. Available at: http://duo.dur.ac.uk/ (Accessed: 14 October 2012).
Brown, T. (2012) Contemporary furniture [Lecture to BSc Design Year 4], DE816: Design for
Industry. Northumbria University. 21 April.
Electronic discussion groups and bulletin boards
Peters, W.R. (2013) International finance questions, British Business School Librarians Group discussion Iist, 11 March. Available email: lisbusiness@jiscmail.com.
Note:
Mention “Available email: email address”.
Entire discussion groups or bulletin boards
Photography news Iist (2013). Available email: pnl@btinfo.net. (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Governmental Sources Referencing
Acts and statutes
When citing acts and statutes in Harvard referencing style, you should include the title of the act, the year it was enacted, the chapter number, the location where it is available (usually a website), and the date you accessed it. Here’s a guideline based on the provided example:
Example:
Health and Social Care (Control of Data Processing) Act (Northern Ireland) 2016 (2016), c. 12. Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/nia/2016/12/contents (Accessed: 24 November 2018).
Legal material papers
Harvard referencing style provides a guideline on how to cite legal materials. The following is an example of how to cite a legal paper on Harvard referencing style.
Example:
Parliament. House of Commons (2000) Compensating victims of violent crime, Session 1999-2000. (HC 1999-2000 472). London: The Stationery Office.
Law Commission reports and consultation papers.
Law Commission (2017) 13th Programme of Law Reform. (Law Com No 377, HC 640). London: The Stationery Office.
Departmental publications
Ministry of Justice (2011) Sentencing statistics quarterly brief: July to September 2010, England and Wales (Provisional data). Available at:
In Harvard referencing style, in-text citations include the author’s last name and the year of publication. If you are directly quoting or referring to a specific part of the source, include the page number as well. Here are some general guidelines and examples for in-text citations
One author/editor
A book with one author is in-texted as follows in Harvard referencing style:
Direct quote: A personal tone is established on the very first page: “In my junior high yearbook, I had a quote from a Spanish poet” (Sebold, 2002, p. 5).
Paraphrasing: The narrator reveals a lot of personal details throughout the story (Sebold, 2002).
Note: use page numbers only when summarizing an idea from a particular page.
Two or three authors/editors
A book with two or three authors is in-texted as follows in Harvard referencing style:
Direct quote: Lankshear, Smith, and Knobel (2006, p. 17) argue that “The cultural and critical facets of knowledge integral to being literate are considerable.”
Paraphrasing: Literacy encompasses many aspects of knowledge (Lankshear, Smith and Knobel,2006, p. 17).
Four or more authors/editors
Direct quote: Evans et al. (2003, p. 137) state that the Australian colonists aimed “to eliminate the political rights of Aborigines” in the late 19th century.
Paraphrasing: Between 1870 and 1890, many efforts have been made to constrict the rights of the indigenous populations (Evans et al., 2003, p. 137).
Corporate Author
Direct quote: The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia and New Zealand (2016, p. 18) claims that “the relief in AASB 128 should apply to the ultimate Australian entity”.
Paraphrasing: The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia and New Zealand (2016, p. 18) explains the use of the relief in AASB 128.
A source with no author/editor
Direct quote: The Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations (1998, p. ix) explains that in the pronunciation guide, “Unstressed syllables are not preceded by stress marks”.
Paraphrasing: It is common for unstressed syllables not to be preceded by stress marks (The Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations, 1998, p. ix).
Multiple sources
Paraphrasing: In both works, the author uses remote locations to emphasize the feeling of helplessness (King, 2008; King, 2010).
Same year/same author
Paraphrasing: In both works, the author uses remote locations to emphasize the feeling of helplessness (King, 2008a; King, 2008b).
Same work, different editions
Paraphrasing: Despite the structural similarities between the two editions, there are still some differences in the topics covered (Feldman, 2008; 2011).
A source quoted in another work
Direct quote: “Green’s study (1999) (cited in Farmer, 2003, p. 13), unlike many of its predecessors, explores the “macro-logics of power” without sacrificing ethnographic depth.”
Note: you can either use a direct quote from the later work that quotes the earlier source or use a
paraphrase to summarize the original idea from the primary source that is addressed in the secondary source. Both cases require you to acknowledge the use of secondary sources in the work you are using for reference.
The Bible
Either direct quote or paraphrasing: (Matthew 5: 3–12)
The Torah
Either direct quote or paraphrasing: (Shernot 3: 14)
The Qur’an
Either direct quote or paraphrasing: (Qur’an 20: 24)
Journal article
Direct quote: “Despite the lack of solid research evidence to date, ICTs hold promise in addressing the challenges of mental health care” (Breslau and Engel, 2016, p. 17).
Paraphrasing: Breslau and Engel (2016, p. 17) state that, in the future, ICTs could be used to diagnose and treat patients with mental dysfunctions and illnesses.
Journal article (no author)
Direct quote: The DUP leader states that the upcoming Assembly election “should not be seen as a referendum on her handling of the Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) scheme” (‘Assembly election: most important vote since 1998’, 2017, para. 2).
Newspaper article without author
Paraphrasing: The Independent (2014) states that …
Web page
Direct quote: “The key sign of central diabetes insipidus is extreme thirst and excessive urination” (WebMD, 2016, para. 3).
Paraphrasing: It is a common misconception that the disease called central diabetes insipidus is related to diabetes and is caused by metabolic dysfunction (WebMD, 2016, para. 1).
Video or film
Direct quote: “The front lines of the invasion moved west to the nations of the Ohio Valley: The Lenape, Shawnee, Miami, and others” (500 nations, 1995).
Lecture
Direct quote: As stated by Stellar (2016, p. 13), the classification of public and public class “applies to any field or method.”
Paraphrasing: The main reason for the importance of imposing access control is the need to protect the private information of students and staff (Stellar, 2016, p, 16).
Government publication
Direct quote: A recent review of the cooperation practices used in PFRAs and the local universities revealed that “about half of the research users indicated that they obtained a high or very high level of value from the collaboration” (Department of Education, Science and Training, 2004, p. 4).
Paraphrasing: The review outlines the opportunities to enhance the cooperation between PFRAs and the universities (Department of Education, Science and Training, 2004)
How do I reference a source with multiple authors?
Include all authors in the in-text citation if the source has more than one author
How do I reference a source without page numbers?
If the source doesn’t have page numbers, don’t include any in your citation.
How do I reference a secondary source?
If you’re referencing a title through a secondary source, you can include the details of the book you read in your reference at the end.
What’s the difference between a reference list and a bibliography?
The reference list and bibliography aren’t counted in your word count, but in-text citations are.
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