Figurative language in literature enhances the depth and richness of a text by implying meanings beyond the literal words. This connotative language invites readers to explore deeper interpretations and emotions, often evoking imagery and symbolism. Unlike denotative language, which communicates clear and direct meanings, figurative language relies on metaphor, simile, and other literary devices to convey abstract concepts. By using figurative language, authors create a more engaging and thought-provoking experience for the reader.
Hence, for the interpretation to obtain meaning in any literary work, it has to be done through;
- Association
- Context
- Impact
Figurative language includes the following;
- Riddles
- Idioms
- Figures of speech
- Proverbs
- Imagery
Riddles
In literature, a riddle is a type of puzzle or enigmatic statement that requires creative and critical thinking to solve. It often involves a question or description that has a hidden meaning, challenging the reader or listener to decipher its true intent. Riddles are used to engage the audience, encourage deeper thought, and can be a playful yet intellectual exercise. They appear in various literary works, from ancient texts and folklore to modern novels and poetry, serving to add layers of mystery and intrigue. Here are three examples of riddles:
- “I speak without a mouth and hear without ears. I have no body, but I come alive with the wind. What am I?” (Answer: An echo)
- “I’m light as a feather, yet the strongest man can’t hold me for much more than a minute. What am I?” (Answer: Breath)
- “I have keys but no locks. I have space but no room. You can enter, but you can’t go outside. What am I?” (Answer: A keyboard)
Idioms
In literature, idioms are phrases or expressions that have figurative meanings different from their literal interpretations, often rooted in cultural or historical context. These expressions add depth, color, and relatability to the text, enhancing the reader’s engagement by invoking shared knowledge or common experiences. Idioms can convey complex ideas succinctly and often contribute to character development, setting the tone, or emphasizing themes. For example:
- “break the ice” means to initiate conversation in a social setting,
- “kick the bucket” is a colloquial way to refer to someone dying,
- “spill the beans” implies revealing a secret and
- “under the weather” describes feeling ill or unwell.
Figures of Speech
Figures of speech are literary devices that use language to compare or represent one thing in terms of another, often to create vivid imagery or to emphasize particular qualities. These devices include metaphors, similes, and personifications, where a direct comparison, like “time is a thief,” or a resemblance, such as “as brave as a lion,” adds depth and meaning to the text. By employing figures of speech, writers can convey complex ideas more effectively and evoke stronger emotional responses from their readers. There are many figures of speech in literature; below are some of them;
- Simile
- Metaphor
- Symbolism
- Personification
- Hyperbole
- Euphemism
- Metonymy
- Irony
- Satire
- Sarcasm
- Onomatopoeia
- Depersonification
- Apostrophe
- Paradox
- Allusion
- Synecdoche
- Oxymoron
- Allegory
- Understatement
Simile
Similes are comparisons of two unlike things using conjunctions. They are indirect relationships in which one thing or idea is expressed as being similar to another. Similes usually contain the words “like” or “as,” but not always.
For example;
- As busy as a bee – This simile compares someone who is very busy and active to a bee, known for its industrious nature.
- Her smile was as bright as the sun – This simile likens the brightness and warmth of a person’s smile to the sun.
- He fought like a lion – This simile describes someone’s bravery and strength in a fight, comparing them to the fierce and powerful lion.
Metaphor
The figure of speech directly compares two, unlike things without using conjunctions. For example;
- Time is a thief – This metaphor suggests that time steals moments from our lives, emphasizing the fleeting nature of time and its impact on our experiences.
- The world is a stage – This metaphor compares the world to a stage, implying that life is a performance and people are actors playing their parts.
Symbolism
Symbolism is the use of specific symbols, ideas, objects, or events to represent/suggest or stand for something else. For example;
- The dove as a symbol of peace – In literature and various cultures, the dove is often used to represent peace, tranquility, and reconciliation.
- The green light in “The Great Gatsby” – In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel, the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock symbolizes Gatsby’s hopes and dreams for the future, as well as the broader theme of the American Dream.
- The raven in Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven” – The raven in this poem symbolizes death and mourning, serving as a constant reminder of the narrator’s sorrow and loss.
Personification
It is the giving of attributes to inanimate that they do not deserve (inanimate means non-animals, e.g., stones, trees, etc.) or
This is a figure of speech that gives or endows objects, animals, ideas, or things the ability to do things like human beings.
For example;
- Hyena said, let me eat
- All the birds sang sorrowfully
- The mountain rose majestically
Hyperbole/overstatement
is a figure of speech that involves an exaggeration of things, ideas or events. For example;
- “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.” – This hyperbole exaggerates the speaker’s hunger to an extreme degree, emphasizing how very hungry they feel.
- “I’ve told you a million times.” – This hyperbole exaggerates the number of times something has been said, emphasizing the speaker’s frustration.
- “He runs faster than the wind” – This hyperbole exaggerates a person’s running speed, suggesting they are extraordinarily fast.
Euphemism
is a figure of speech that is used to reduce the harshness of words that could be spoken in public. For example;
- “Passed away” instead of “died” – This euphemism is often used to soften the harsh reality of death.
- “Economical with the truth” instead of “lying” – This phrase is used to imply that someone is not being completely honest without directly accusing them of lying.
- “Let go” instead of “fired” – This euphemism is used to make the act of terminating someone’s employment sound less harsh.
- “Senior citizen” instead of “old person” – This phrase is used to show respect and politeness when referring to older individuals.
Metonymy
This is a figure of speech characterized by the substitution of one item closely related to another. For example;
- “The White House issued a statement.” – Here, “The White House” is used as a metonymy for the President and their administration, representing the executive branch of the U.S. government.
- “The pen is mightier than the sword” – In this phrase, “the pen” represents writing or diplomacy, and “the sword” represents military force or violence, using metonymy to convey the power of communication over warfare.
Irony
Irony is the figure of speech that tells/speaks the opposite of what is meant to be. It is where an event that occurs is unexpected and absurd or mocking in opposition to what is expected or appropriate. For example;
- A fire station burns down – This is situational irony because one would expect a fire station, a place designed to combat fires, to be the least likely place to burn down.
- A traffic cop gets his license suspended for unpaid parking tickets – This is ironic because the very person responsible for enforcing traffic laws is found guilty of violating them.
Satire
It is a figure of speech or literary term that uses humor or wit to ridicule human vices, follies, or weaknesses. It is used to improve human institutions or humanity. Some examples are:
- “Gulliver’s Travels” by Jonathan Swift – This novel satirizes various aspects of human nature, society, and politics through the adventures of Lemuel Gulliver, who encounters bizarre and absurd societies that reflect and critique contemporary issues.
- “The Daily Show” with Trevor Noah – This television program uses humor and irony to satirize current events, politics, and media, often highlighting the absurdities and contradictions in public discourse and governmental actions.
- “The Importance of Being Earnest” by Oscar Wilde – This play satirizes the social conventions, hypocrisies, and trivialities of the Victorian upper class, using wit and irony to expose the superficiality of societal norms and behaviors.
Sarcasm
This is a figure of speech that uses language and inflicting, wounding as well as tormenting a person. For example;
- “Oh great, another rainy day. Just what I needed.” – This sarcastic remark implies the speaker is frustrated by the rain, even though the words suggest they are pleased.
- “Nice job, Einstein,” said someone who has made a simple mistake – This sarcastic comment ironically praises someone by comparing them to the genius Albert Einstein when in fact, they have done something foolish.
- “Yeah, because staying up all night before an exam is such a brilliant idea,” said someone who procrastinated studying – This sarcastic statement mocks the poor decision to stay up all night instead of preparing in a timely manner.
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia refers to the formation of words, which refers to the sounds produced by the originator of the words. For example;
- “Buzz” – This word imitates the sound of a bee or other insects.
- “Splash” – This word represents the sound of something hitting the water.
- “Bang” – This word mimics the sound of a loud explosion or a gunshot.
Depersonification
This is a figure of speech that gives a human being the inanimate (non-human) characteristics or behavior. For example;
- “He was a machine, working tirelessly without any sign of fatigue.” – This description likens a human to a machine, emphasizing their relentless and mechanical work ethic.
- “She felt like a cog in the wheel, just another part of the system.” – This phrase dehumanizes a person by comparing them to a mere mechanical part, highlighting their lack of individuality within a larger organization.
- “In the crowd, he felt like a mere shadow, unnoticed and insignificant.” – This expression describes a person as a shadow, suggesting a lack of presence or importance.
Apostrophe
This is an explanation in which a person is addressing an absence or dead human being or a non-human creature as if they can hear or reply. For example;
- “O Death, where is thy sting?” – In this example, the speaker addresses Death directly, personifying it and questioning its power.
- “Twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I wonder what you are!” – The speaker addresses the star, treating it as if it could respond to their curiosity.
- “O, Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” – In Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet,” Juliet addresses Romeo even though he is not present, expressing her longing and confusion.
Paradox
This is a contradictory statement that has some truth when interpreted, where a situation is created that cannot possibly exist because different elements of it cancel each other out.
- “Less is more.” – This paradoxical statement suggests that simplicity can lead to greater impact or effectiveness, even though “less” and “more” are opposites.
- “I must be cruel to be kind.” – In Shakespeare’s “Hamlet,” this statement implies that harsh actions can sometimes be necessary to achieve a benevolent outcome.
- “The beginning of the end.” – This phrase indicates that the start of something is simultaneously leading to its conclusion, combining contradictory ideas.
- “This is the only constant.” – This statement suggests that change, which is typically considered variable and unpredictable, is actually the only thing that consistently occurs.
Allusion
Allusion is the comparison of an ordinary person or event with a past famous or notorious person or event. For example;
- “He has the Midas touch.” – This allusion refers to King Midas from Greek mythology, who could turn everything he touched into gold, implying that someone has a talent for making money or achieving success.
- “She met her Waterloo.” – This allusion references the Battle of Waterloo, where Napoleon was defeated, suggesting that someone has encountered a significant and decisive defeat.
- “Don’t be a Scrooge.” – This allusion refers to Ebenezer Scrooge from Charles Dickens’s “A Christmas Carol,” implying that someone is being miserly or uncharitable.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is the substitution of a meaning where a part of an entity is mentioned to mean the whole entity or the whole entity is mentioned to mean its part. For example;
- “All hands on deck” – This phrase uses “hands” to refer to the sailors or crew members, indicating that everyone is needed to help.
- “Nice wheels!” – Here, “wheels” refers to the entire car, not just the wheels themselves.
- “The White House issued a statement” – “The White House” represents the President and their administration, rather than the building itself.
- “He has a good head on his shoulders” – This phrase uses “head” to represent the person’s intelligence or wisdom, rather than just the physical part of the body.
Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a statement in which elements of opposite meanings are used. For example;
- “Deafening silence” – This oxymoron combines two contradictory terms, “deafening” (extremely loud) and “silence” (complete absence of sound), to emphasize the profound quietness of a situation.
- “Bittersweet” – This oxymoron merges “bitter” (having a sharp, unpleasant taste or experience) and “sweet” (pleasant or enjoyable) to describe an experience that has both positive and negative aspects simultaneously.
Allegory
Allegory is a story with two meanings, one open and direct meaning, and another indirect, hidden but intended meaning, where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic, of something else, usually a larger abstract concept or essential historical/geopolitical event.
- “Animal Farm” by George Orwell – This novel is an allegory for the Russian Revolution and the rise of the Soviet Union, with farm animals representing key figures and groups from this historical period.
- “The Allegory of the Cave” by Plato – In this philosophical work, Plato describes prisoners in a cave who perceive shadows on the wall as reality, representing the journey from ignorance to enlightenment and the effects of education on human perception.
- “The Pilgrim’s Progress” by John Bunyan – This story is an allegory of the Christian journey of faith, depicting the protagonist, Christian, as he travels from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City, representing the path to spiritual salvation.
Understatement/litotes
This is a figure of speech that describes or represents something smaller or less significant than it really is. Consider the examples below;
- “It’s just a scratch,” said about a large dent in a car – This understatement downplays the severity of the damage.
- “He’s not too bad at cooking,” said a professional chef – This understatement modestly describes someone who is exceptionally skilled in the culinary arts.
- “We had a bit of rain,” said after a heavy storm or flood – This understatement minimizes the extent of the rainfall and its potential impact.
Proverbs
In literature, a proverb is a concise, commonly known expression that imparts wisdom or advice based on cultural experience and general truths. These short, pithy sayings often embody traditional beliefs or common sense observations, serving as a means of conveying moral lessons or practical guidelines through memorable and easily understood language. Writers incorporate proverbs to lend authenticity, cultural context, and universality to their narratives, connecting readers with shared human experiences and insights. By embedding these time-honored adages, literature not only reflects societal values but also perpetuates them across generations.
Examples of proverbs
- “Actions speak louder than words.” – This proverb emphasizes that what people do is more important and revealing than what they say.
- “The early bird catches the worm.” – This saying advises that success comes to those who prepare well and put in effort early.
- “A picture is worth a thousand words.” – This proverb suggests that complex ideas can be conveyed more effectively with images than with words.
- “You can’t judge a book by its cover.” – This proverb warns against forming opinions about something or someone based solely on appearances.
Imagery
Figurative language paints a mental picture in the reader/listener’s mind when it is used.
Others also define imagery as the use of language to depict descriptive objects, activities, or even abstract concepts. Imagery, on the other hand, refers to the use of language to vividly describe something, employing words to represent and evoke sensory experiences, such as visual and auditory sensations. It also pertains to distinct and repetitive categories of visual representations, such as depictions of food and depictions of nature.
It involves mental picture language, for example,
“Her body has unusual black, like soot
With terrifying rashes,
And chronic sores.
She is getting thinner, thinner and thinner
Then a mosquito body.”
When a person reads the above verses, he/she may imagine a person who is thinner or becoming thinner than a mosquito and whose body is terribly destroyed by rashes and black scars like soot.
PRACTICAL ANALYSIS/CRITICISM OF POEMS
There are several things that you are required to consider when you are analyzing a poem. The following are important things to consider;
TOOLS:
- poem
- A dictionary
- The detailed checklist for analyzing poetry
THE DETAILED CHECKLIST
This is the list of procedures and technicalities to be employed/considered in poetry analysis. They include the following;
i. The title of a poem: The title sometimes may help you get a clue about what the poem is about. It is also more helpful to the reader in predicting the content of a given poem. However, it is not necessarily that every title is capable of suggesting the content of the poem, as titles are ironical in nature.
ii. Form/structure: this refers to how the poem is construed specifically in considering the verses and/or stanzas it contains. It may have fourteen or fewer verses, perhaps.
iii. General message/content: this is referred to as the core message a poem contains.
iv. Other possible themes are supplementary issues discussed in a poem. They are sometimes known as motifs.
v. The speaker/persona: this is the one who speaks in a poem. He/she may be a passive person who only narrates about a problem/situation without him/herself being affected by it. Also, he/she can be an active person who is directly affected by the topic of discussion.
vi. Language use/diction: This refers to the way language is used to mold a poem. This is so crucial in Literature; Language use is very influential in molding the message the artist wants to convey. It includes the level of formality (i.e. formal or informal/standard or non-standard), figures of speech, and imagery.
vii. Musical devices; here, a reader ought to pay much attention to issues like rhyme, rhythm, refrain, assonance, consonance, alliteration, reiteration, anadiplosis, parallelism etc.
viii. Tone/mood/attitude of the persona: Understanding tone/mood/attitude can help a reader determine the message a poet intends to convey to his/her audience.
ix. Relevance of the poem: A reader is supposed to relate the motifs to his/her contemporary society. The poem may only be relevant if it reflects the social reality in the reader’s society.
WORKED EXAMPLES ON POEMS’ CRITICAL APPRECIATION
EAT MORE by Joe Corrie
Eat more fruit, the slogan says
More fish, more beef, more bread
But I’m on unemployment pay
My third year now, and Wed.
Also, I wonder when I will see
The slogan when I pass
The only one that would suit me
Eat more bloody grass.
CRITICAL CRITICISM
i. Who speaks in the poem?
The one who speaks in this poem is an active person who is directly affected by unemployment and he is complaining about eating a balanced diet while he cannot afford it due to his poor financial position.
ii. What is the tone/mood/attitude of the speaker?
The persona’s tone/mood/attitude is sadness/angry (anger) and seriousness because he is complaining about the situation of unemployment that makes him fail to afford to eat a balanced diet.
iii. How is the poem organized (structured)?
The poem is organized into two stanzas, with four verses in each stanza.
iv. Comment on the Language use
The Language used in a poem is ordinary or standard Language because it uses the common words. Also it follows grammatical rules like punctuation.
However, there is the use of figurative language, which includes the following;
Imagery: This can be depicted by the description of the slogan and the diet contents, specifically in the first stanza.
Figures of speech: there are a lot of figures of speech depicted in this poem, and they include;
Symbolism, e.g., “bloody grass” to symbolize the lower class (poor) and “fish, beef and bread” to symbolize the upper class in the society (rich) as well as the balanced diet.
Personification is vividly seen in the first verse of the first stanza as the poet says,
“Eat more fruit, the slogan says
More fish, more beef, more bread.”
v. What is the content/general idea/topic of the poem?
The general idea/content of the poem is unemployment, which results in poverty, exploitation, protest, conflict, etc.
vi. What are the poetic features used in this poem?
Different poetic features used in this poem include the following;
o Rhyme: the rhymes used are; “abab” rhyming scheme in the the first stanza and “cdcd” rhymes in the second stanza/last stanza.
o Repetition of similar sounds, e.g.
The alliteration of “m” and “b” in the second verse of the first stanza
More fish, more beef, more bread
Reiteration: eat, more, slogan.
Consonance, e.g. “d” in the second and fourth stanza of the first stanza;
“Eat more fruit, the slogan says
More fish, more beef, more bread
But I’m on unemployment pay
My third year now and Wed.”
o Assonance; this is seen in the second verse of the first stanza as shown below;
“Eat more fruit, the slogan says
More fish, more beef, more bread
————————————– ”
vii. What is the type of this poem?
It is a lyric poem that is short and expresses strong feelings/ideas of a persona.
viii. Is the poem relevant to your contemporary society?
The poem is so relevant to our contemporary society as in most cases people in power insist the implementation of different slogans without even considering their affordability to the common people.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is figurative language?
Figurative language uses figures of speech to be more effective, persuasive, and impactful, going beyond the literal meaning of words.
Why is figurative language important in literature?
It enriches the text, evokes emotions, and creates vivid imagery, making the reading experience more engaging.
How can one identify figurative language in a text?
Look for comparisons, exaggerations, and expressions that convey meanings beyond the literal interpretation of words.
What are some common types of figurative language?
Common types include similes, metaphors, personification, hyperbole, onomatopoeia, oxymorons, idioms, alliteration, assonance, and euphemisms.
Can figurative language be used in non-fiction?
Yes, figurative language can enhance non-fiction by making complex ideas more understandable and engaging.
How does figurative language affect the reader?
It evokes emotions, creates vivid imagery, and enhances engagement with the text.